Psychology 111 Book Chpt 2

Front 1

Scientific Method

Back 1

A systematic procedure of observing and measuring phenomena to answer questions about what happens, when it happens, what causes it, and why.

Front 2

Theory

Back 2

A model of interconnected ideas and concepts that explains what is observed and makes predictions about future events.

Front 3

Hypothesis

Back 3

A specific prediction of what should be observed in the world if a theory is correct.

Front 4

Research

Back 4

Scientific process that involves the systematic and careful collection of data.

Front 5

Data

Back 5

Objective observations or measurements.

Front 6

Replication

Back 6

Repetition of an experiment to confirm the results.

Front 7

Variable

Back 7

Something in the world that can be measured and that can vary.

Front 8

Naturalistic Observation

Back 8

A passive descriptive study in which observers do not change or alter ongoing behavior.

Front 9

Participant Observation

Back 9

A type of descriptive study in which the researcher is actively involved in the situation.

Front 10

Descriptive Studies

Back 10

involve observing and classifying behavior, either with no intervention by the observer (naturalistic observation) or with intervention by the observer (participant observation).

Front 11

Descriptive Studies:
Advantages/Disadvantages

Back 11

Advantages: Especially valuable in the early stages of research, when trying to determine whether a phenomenon exists. Takes place in a real-world setting.
Disadvantages: Errors in observation can occur because of an observer's expectations (observer bias). Observer's presence can change the behavior being witnessed (reactivity).

Front 12

Longitudinal Studies

Back 12

Involve observing and classifying developmental changes that occur in the same people over time, either with no intervention by the observer or with intervention by the observer.

Front 13

Longitudinal Studies:
Advantages/Disadvantages

Back 13

Advantages: Provide information about the effects of age on the same people, allowing researchers to see developmental changes.
Disadvantages: Expensive, take a long time, and may lose participants over time.

Front 14

Observer Bias

Back 14

Systematic errors in observation that occur because of an observer's expectations.

Front 15

Experimenter Expectancy Effect

Back 15

Actual change in the behavior of the people or animals being observed that is due to observers bias.

Front 16

Correlational Study

Back 16

A research method that examines how variables are naturally related in the real world, without any attempt by the researcher to alter them.

Front 17

Correlational Study:
Advantages/Disadvantages

Back 17

Advantages: Rely on naturally occurring relationships. May take place in a real-world setting.
Disadvantages: Cannot be used to support causal relationships (that one thing happened because of the other). Cannot show the direction of the cause/effect relationship between variables (directionality problem). And unidentified variable may be involved (third variable problem).

Front 18

Correlational Study

Back 18

Examine how variables are related, with no intervention by the observer.

Front 19

Directionality Problem

Back 19

When researchers find a relationship between two variables in a correlational study, they cannot determine which variable may have caused changes in the other variable.

Front 20

Third Variable Problem

Back 20

When the experimenter cannot directly manipulate the independent variable and therefore cannot be confident that another, unmeasured variable is not the actual cause of differences in the dependent variable.

Front 21

Experiment

Back 21

A study that tests causal hypotheses by measuring and manipulating variables.

Front 22

Control (or Comparison) Group

Back 22

The participants in a study that receive no intervention or an intervention different from the one being studied.

Front 23

Experimental (or Treatment) Group

Back 23

The participants in a study that receive the intervention.

Front 24

Independent Variable

Back 24

In an experiment, the condition that is manipulated by the experimenter to examine its impact on the dependent variable.

Front 25

Dependent Variable

Back 25

In an experiment, the measure that is affected by manipulation of the independent variable.

Front 26

Confound

Back 26

Anything that affects a dependent variable and may unintentionally vary between the experimental conditions of a study.

Front 27

Population

Back 27

Everyone in the group the experimenter is interested in.

Front 28

Sample

Back 28

A subset of the population.

Front 29

Selection Bias

Back 29

When participants in different groups in an experiment differ systematically.

Front 30

Random Assignment

Back 30

The procedure for placing research participants into the conditions of an experiment in which each participant has an equal chance of being assigned to any level of the independent variable.

Front 31

Meta-Analysis

Back 31

A "study of studies" that combines the findings of multiple studies to arrive at the same conclusion.

Front 32

Culturally Sensitive Research

Back 32

Studies that take into account the ways culture affects thoughts, feelings, and actions.

Front 33

Observational Technique

Back 33

A research method of careful and systematic assessment and coding of overt behavior.

Front 34

Reactivity

Back 34

When the knowledge that one is being observed alters the behavior being observed.

Front 35

Case Study

Back 35

Involves the intensive examination of one person or a few individuals or one or a few organizations, typically people or organizations that are somehow unusual.

Front 36

Self-Report Method

Back 36

A method of data collection in which people are asked to provide information about themselves, such as in questionnaires or surveys.

Front 37

Interactive Methods

Back 37

Involve asking questions of participants, who then respond in any way they feel is appropriate (open-ended questions) or select from among a fixed number of options (closed-ended questions).

Front 38

Interactive Methods:
Advantages/Disadvantages

Back 38

Advantages: Self-report methods such as questionnaires can be used to gather data from a large number of people. They are easy to administer, cost-efficient, and a relatively fast way to collect data. Interviewing people face-to-face gives the researcher the opportunity to explore new lines of questioning. Experience sampling allows researchers to determine how responses vary over time.
Disadvantages: People can introduce biases into their answers (self-report bias) or may not recall information accurately.

Front 39

Response Performance

Back 39

A research method in which researchers quantify perceptual or cognitive processes in response to a specific stimulus.

Front 40

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

Back 40

A device that measures electrical activity in the brain.

Front 41

Brain Imaging

Back 41

A range of experimental techniques that make brain structures and brain activity visible.

Front 42

Position Emission Tomography (PET)

Back 42

A method of brain imaging that assesses metabolic activity by using a radioactive substance injected into the blood stream.

Front 43

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

Back 43

A method of brain imaging that produces high-quality images of the brain.

Front 44

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)

Back 44

An imaging technique used to examine changes in the activity of the working human brain.

Front 45

Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)

Back 45

The use of strong magnets to briefly interrupt normal brain activity as a way to study brain regions.

Front 46

Institutional Review Boards (IRBs)

Back 46

Groups of people responsible for reviewing proposed research to ensure that it meets the accepted standards of science and provides for the physical and emotional well-being of research participants.

Front 47

Validity

Back 47

The extent to which the data collected address the research hypothesis in the way intended.

Front 48

Reliability

Back 48

The extent to which a measure is stable and consistent over time in similar conditions.

Front 49

Accuracy

Back 49

The extent to which an experimental measure is free from error.

Front 50

Descriptive Statistics

Back 50

Overall summary of data. They are used to summarize a data set and to measure the central tendency and variability in a set of numbers.

Front 51

Central Tendency

Back 51

A measure that represents the typical behavior of the group as a whole.

Front 52

Mean

Back 52

A measure of central tendency that is the value in a set of numbers that falls exactly halfway between the lowest and highest value.

Front 53

Mode

Back 53

A measure of central tendency that is the most frequent score or value in a set of numbers.

Front 54

Variability

Back 54

In a set of numbers, how widely dispersed the values are from each other and from the mean.

Front 55

Standard Deviation

Back 55

A statistical measure of how far away each value is, on average, from the mean.

Front 56

Scatterplots

Back 56

Are graphs that illustrate the relationship between two variables. In general, according to this scatterplot, the more women worked, the more they wanted to have fun.

Front 57

Inferential Statistics

Back 57

A set of procedures used to make judgements about whether differences actually exist between sets of numbers.