Psychology 102- Memory

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Memory

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The process of encoding, storage, consolidation, and retrieval of information

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Encoding

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The process of transforming information into a form that can be stored in memory

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Storage

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The process of keeping or maintaining information in memory

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Consolidation

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A physiological change in the brain that allows encoded information to be stored in memory

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Retrieval

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The process of bringing to mind information that has been stored in memory

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Information-processing approach

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A framework for studying memory that uses the computer as a model of human cognitive processes

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Sensory memory

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The memory system that holds information from the senses for a period of time ranging from only a fraction of a second to about 2 seconds

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Short term memory(STM)

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The component of the memory system that holds about seven(5-9) items for less than 30 seconds without rehearsal; also called working memory

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Displacement

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The event that occurs when short term memory is filled to capacity and each new, incoming item pushes out an existing item, which is then forgotten

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Chunking

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a memory strategy that involves grouping or organizing bits of information into larger units which are easier to remember

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Rehearsal

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the act of purposely repeating information to maintain it in short-term memory

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Maintenance rehearsal

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Repeating information over and over again until it is no longer needed; may eventually lead to storage of information in long term memory

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Elaborative rehearscal

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a memory strategy that involves relating new information to something that is already known

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Which memory system is used to work on information in order to understand it, remember it, or use it to solve a problem or communicate with someone?

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short term memory/working memory

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Long-term memory(LTM)

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The memory system with a virtually unlimited capacity that contains vast stores of a person's permanent or relatively permanent memories

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Declarative memory

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the subsystem within long term memory that:
-stores facts, information, and personal life events that can be brought to mind verbally or in the form of images and then declared or stated
-also called explicit memory.

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Episodic memory

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type of declarative memory that recors events as they have been subjectively experienced

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Semantic memory

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the type of declarative memory that stores general knowledge or objective facts and information

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Nondeclarative memory

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the subsystem within long-term memory that stores motor skills habits and simple classically conditioned responses
-also called implicit memory

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Shallow processing

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encoding based on superficial features of information
-used for maintenance rehearsal

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Deep processing

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encoding based on meaning of information
-used for elaborate rehearsal
-more likely to lead to long term retention

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Recall

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A memory task in which a person must produce required information by searching memory

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Retrieval cue

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Any stimulus or bit of information that aids in retrieving particular information from long-term memory

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recognition

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a memory task in which a person must simply identify material as familiar or as having been encountered before
-easier than recall

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Saving score

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percentage of time saved to relearn something
-reflects how much material remains in long term memory

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Relearning method

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a measure of memory in which retention is expressed as the percentage of time saved when material is relearned compared with that time required to learn the material originally.

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Serial position effect

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the finding that, for information learned in a sequence, recall is better for the beginning and ending items than for the middle items in the sequence

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Primacy effect

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the tendency to recall the first items in a sequence more readily than the middle items

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Recency effect

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the tendency to recall the last items in a sequence more readily than those in the middle

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What causes poor recall of middle items in a sequence?

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they have not been placed in long-term memory and are no longer in short term memory

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What did Tulving and Thompson suggest about memory and context?

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many elements of the physical setting in which a person learns information are encoded along with the information and become part of the memory and may serve as a retrieval cue

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State-dependent memory effect

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The tendency to recall information better if one is in the same pharmacological or psychological state as when information was encoded
-recall info better if you are in the same emotional state as when it was encoded

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Flashbulb memory

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extremely vivid memory of the conditions surrounding one's first hearing the news of a surprising, shocking, or highly emotional event.

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Eidetic Imagery

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the ability to retain the image of a visual stimulus for several minutes after it has been removed from view and to use this retained image to answer questions about the visual stimulus

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What did Frederick Bartlett propose about culture and memory?

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Memory abilities operate within a social or cultural context, manner and matter of recall are often predominantly determined by social influences.

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How does culture affect ability to remember stories?

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people are more likely to remember stories set in their own culture and recognize people of their own ethnic group than of another

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Reconstruction

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an account of an event that has been pieced together from a few highlights using information that may or may not be accurate

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schemas

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the integrated frameworks of knowledge and assumptions a person has about people objects and events which affect how the person encodes and recalls information
-can lead to inaccurate memories

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Why shouldnt a witness be shown photographs of suspects before a line up?

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-they are more likely to pick someone that looks familiar
-better to have them first describe suspect

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Repression

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a psychological process in which traumatic memories are buried in the unconscious

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Misinformation effect

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misleading information supplied after an event can result in erroneous recollections of the actual event

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Infantile amnesia

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the relative inability of older children and adults to recall evens from the first few years of life

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hippocampal region

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a part of the limbic system which includes the hippocampus itself and the underlying cortical areas involved in the formation of semantic memories
-once memories are stored they can be retrieved without hippocampus

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long-term potentiation(LTP)

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an increase in the efficiency of neural transmissions at the synapses that lasts for hours or longer

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consolidation failure

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any disruption in the consolidation process that prevents a long-term memory from forming
-occurs when long-term potentiation is disrupted

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Amnesia

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a partial or complete loss of memory due to loss of consciousness, brain damage or some psychological cause

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What is estrogen's effect on the working memory's efficiency?

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It improves it

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What is cortisol's effect on memory?

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it impairs it

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anterograde amnesia

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the inability to form long term memories of events occurring after a brain injury or brain surgery, although memories formed before the trauma are usually intact and short term memory is unaffected.

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retrograde amnesia

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loss of memory for experiences that occurred shortly before a loss of consciousness
--involves episodic memory
-suffers still understand world around them

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dementia

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a state of mental deterioration characterized by impaired memory and intellect and by altered personality and behavior
-lose episodic and semantic memories
-difficulty forming new ones
-inability to do daily activities

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Alzheimer disease

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An incurable form of dementia characterized by progressive deterioration of intellect and personality, resulting from widespread degeneration of brain cells

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What did Hermann Ebbinghaus do?

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Use nonsense syllables to develop a curve of forgetting

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Forgetting

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inability to recall something you could recall previously

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Encoding failure

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a cause of forgetting that occurs when information was never put into long term memory

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Decay theory

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-oldest theory of forgetting
-memories if not used fade with time and ultimately disappear all together

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Interference

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a cause of forgetting that occurs because information or associations stored either before or after a given memory hinder the ability to remember it

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proactive interference

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information or experiences already srored in long term memory hinder the ability to remember newer information

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Retroactive interference

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when new learning interferes with the ability to remember previously learned information

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motivated forgetting

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forgetting through suppression or repression in an effort to protect oneself from material that is painful frightening or otherwise unpleasant

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prospective forgetting

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not remembering to carry out some intended action
-most likely to forget things we view as unimportant, unpleasant, or burdensome
-can result from interference or consolidation failure

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retrieval failure

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not remembering something one is certain of knowing

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tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon

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the experience of knowing that a particular piece of information has been learned but being unable to retrieve it

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overlearning

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practicing or studying material beyond the point where it can be repeated once without error