Psychology 101

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classical conditioning

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a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events.

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conditioned response

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in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS).

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unconditioned response

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in classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth. (p. 295)

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conditioned response (CR):

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in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral stimulus

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unconditioned response (UR):

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the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth. (p. 295)

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acquisition

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in classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response. (p. 296)

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associative learning

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learning that certain events occur together. Events may be two stimluli or a response and its consequences

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behaviorism

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the view that psychology should 1) be an objective science that 2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with 1 but not 2 (watson)

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Ivan Pavlov

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did classical conditioning experiments

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higher-order conditioning

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a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning ecpereince is parired with a new neutral sitmulus, creating a second, weaker, conditioned stimulus

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generalization

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the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses. (p. 298)

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discrimination

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in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus

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cognitives processes

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thoughts, perceptions, expectations that may undermine classical conditioning

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law of effect

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Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely

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operant chamber

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aka Skinner Box

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respondent behavior

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behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus

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reinforcer

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any event that strengthens the behavior that follows

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negative stimulus

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NOT PUNISHMENT; something is allievated and thus reinforces a behavior

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primary reinforcer

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innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that staisfies a biological need

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conditioned reinforcer

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a stimulus that gains its reinforincing power through its association witha primary reinforcer

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continuous reinforcement

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reinforcing the desired response every time

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partial (intermittenet) reinforcement

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reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than continuous reinforcement

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fixed-ratio schedule

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in operant conditioning, a reinforecement shcedule that reinforced a rseponse only after a specified number of responses

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variable-ratio schedule

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in operant conditioning, a reinforcement shcedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses

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fixed-interval shcedule

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in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed

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variable-interval shcedule

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operant conditioning, a reinforcement shcedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals

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punishment

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decreases the frequency of a behavior

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posititve punishment

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add pain

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negative punishment

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take away joy

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latent learning

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learning that becomes apparent only when there is incentive to demonstrate it

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intrinsic motivation

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desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake

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extrinsic motivation

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in the desire to behave in certain ways to receive external rewards or avoid punishment

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Bandura

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bobo doll

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prosocial

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positive, helpful

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short-term memory

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activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten. (p. 329)

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Spacing Effect

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the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice.

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Recency effect

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Shortly after hearing a list of items, people tend to recall the last items in the list especially quickly and accurately.

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Chunking

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organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically

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State Dependent Memory

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remember things better when you return to the former state you were in which you encoded it

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working memory

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nuewer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming information and of information rettrieved from long-term memory

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serial position effect

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tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list

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semantic encoding

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the encoding of meaning, including the meaning of words

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LTP

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long-term potentation; increase in a synapse's firing potential after breif, rapid stimuliation. belived to be a neural basis for learning and memory.

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implicit memory

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retention independent of conscious recollection.

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explicit memory

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memory of facts and experiements that one can consciously know and "decalre"

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recall

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retrieve info earlier learned, fill-in-the balnk

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recognition

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identitfy previously learned

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relearning

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a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time asaved when learning material for a second time

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hippocampus

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helps process explicit memories for storage

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where are implicit memories stored

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cerebellum

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transience

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storgae decay over time (unused info fades)

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misattribution

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confusing the source of information (putting words in someoene else mouth or remembering a dream as actually happening)

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suggestibility

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lingering effects of misinformation

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bias

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belief-colored recollection (current feeling of a friend may color our recalled initial feelings)

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proactive interference

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the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information

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retroactive interference

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the disruptive effect of new language on teh recall of old information

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misinformation effect

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incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event

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source amnesia

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attributing to the wrong source an event we have heard about

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operational definitions

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a staement of the procedures used to define research variable.

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case study

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observation techniquein which one person is studied in depth in th ehope of revealing universal principles

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correlation coefficiant

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a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to 1)

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illusory correlation

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the perception of a correlation when none exists

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independent vairable

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the experimental factor that is manipulated

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dependent variable

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the outcome factor; what changes in response to the independent variable

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mode

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most frequently occuring scores

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mean

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the average

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median

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the middle score in a distribution: half the scores are above it and half below it

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range

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the difference between the highest and lowest scores

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standard deviation

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a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score

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statistical significance

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a statistical staement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance

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nueron

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a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system

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sensory nerurons

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neurons that carry INCOMING info from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord

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motor neurons

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neurons that carry OUTGOING information from the rbain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands

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interneurons

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neurons withing the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs

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dendrite

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the bushy, branching extensions of a neruon that recieve messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body

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axon

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the extension of a neuron ending in branching terminal fibers, thru which messages pass to other neurons or to muscles or glands

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action potential

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a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down the axon

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treshold

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the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse

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synapse

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the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron. the tiny gap at this junction is called the synaptic gap or synaptic cleft

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neurotransmitters

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chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons. when released by the sending neuron, these travel across the synapses and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influeincing whether that neuron will genreat a neural impulse

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reuptake

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neurotransmitters reabsorption by the sending neuron

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heritability

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the proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes. the heritability of a trait may vary, depending on the range of populations and envrionments studied

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social learning theory

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theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitation and by being rewarded or punished

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peripheral nervouse system

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the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body

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somatic nervous system

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the dividion of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles.

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autonomic nervous system

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the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and muscles of the internal organs. its sympathetic dividion arouses; its parasympathetic division calms

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sympathetic nervous system

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the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing it in stressful situtations

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PET

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Position emission tomography scan, a visual display of brain activity that detects where the glucose goes while a brain performs a task

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medulla

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base of the brain stem

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reticular formation

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part of the brainstem that plays an important role in arousal

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thalamus

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brain's sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiveing areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla

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cerebellum

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the little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input and coordinationg movement output and balance

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hypothalamus

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a neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance actibvities (Eating drinking) helps goern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland and is linked to emotion and reward

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motor cortex

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area of the frontal lobe that controls voluntary moements

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cerebral cortex

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the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and info-processing center

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glial cells

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cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, a protect neurons

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frontal lobes

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portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movement and making plans and judgements

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parietal lobes

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portion of the verebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and pody position

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occipital lobes

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portion of the cerebral cortex at the back of the head' incules areas that receive info from teh visual fields

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temporal lobes

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portion of the cerebral cortex that is roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each ereceiveing info primarily from opposite ear

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motor cortex

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area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movement

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association areas

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areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensor functions, rarther, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking

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where is the moral compass located?

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frontal lobes

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corpus callosum

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connects the right and left hemispheres

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binet & Simon

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intelligince test for reasoning skills

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gardner intelligence theory

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multiple abilities that come inpackages; 8 intelligences: linguistic, logic, musical, spatial, bodily, intrapersonal, interpersonal, naturalist

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Sternberg

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three intelligineces: analytical, creative, practical

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spearman

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general intelligience: a basic intelligence predicts our abilities in varied acadmic subjects

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thurstone

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primary mental abilities: intelligience may be broken down into seven facotrs: word fluency, comprehension, spcial abilitiy, perceptual speed, numerical ability, inducive reasoning, memory

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stanford-binet

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the widelt used american revision of binets original intelligence test

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achievement test

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assesses what a person has learned

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bottom-up processing

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anlyssi that begins with sensory receptors and works up to the brains integration of sensory info

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top-down processing

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info processing guided by heigher-level mental process, as when we construct perceptions drawaing on our eperience and expcetations

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oral

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pleasure centers on the mouth

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anal

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blowel and baldder elimination, coping with demands for control
18-36 months

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phallic

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pleasure is genitals, coping with incestual desires
3-6

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latency

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6-puberty, dormant sexualt feelings

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genital

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puberty on, maturation of sexual interests