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170 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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unconditioned stimulus
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triggers a response automatically
i.e. food in mouth --> saliva U.C is FOOD |
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unconditioned response
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natural, unlearned response
Salivation is U.R. |
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conditioned stimulus
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originally neutral, trained not to be
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conditioned response
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learned response
i.e. salivation at bell, not food |
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acquisition
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initial learning of stimulus-response relationship
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extinction
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lessening of response
bell rings, no food is presented, salivation will start to decrease |
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spontaneous recovery
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reappearance of weakened conditioned response
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generalization
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response to a stimulus similar to the conditioned stimulus, but not
i.e. dog will salivate at similar tone that has never been played with food |
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discrimination
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distinguish between a CS and other irrelvant stimuli
i.e. Pavlov dogs respond only to one, not all |
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higher order conditioning
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a new neutral stimulus can become new conditioned stimulus.
ex: tone signals food, produces spit, light becomes associated with tone may also produce spit |
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biological predispositions
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capacity for conditioning constrained by biology; prepare to learn associations that enhance survival
ex: become ill after eating mussels. develop aversion to mussels, not restaurant, people, music played |
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garcia and koelling rat study
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rats begin avoiding plastic H2O bottles in radiation chambers.
HYPOTHESIS: rats linked bottles to radiation sickness found that US doesnt have to immediately follow CS to become conditioned not any percievable stimulus can serve as CS |
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taste aversion
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hard time eating mussels after sickness
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conditioning and fear
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specific fears may be conditioned
ex: albert presented with white rat and scary sound when he touched it. after seven repeats albert cried at sight of rat 5 days later showed fear of dog & rabbit |
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counterconditioning
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evoke new response to stimulus that triggers bad response
ex: claustrophobic, scared of elevators, so train relaxation response when in small space |
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systematic desensitization
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relax when facing anxiety-making stimulus, gradually increasing stimulus
ex: public speaking, start with small group work way up to huge audience |
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coyotes
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conditioned taste-aversion
ate sheep laced with poison developed aversion to sheep when penned with live, feared them |
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chemotherapy
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therapy triggers nausea/vomiting more than 30 min after treatment
patient develop CR to sight,sound,smell of clinic |
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operant conditioning
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forms associations between CS and US
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respondent behavior
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actions that are automatic responses to stimulus
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operant behavior
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is it learning associations between behavior and resulting events?
consequences, punishment, reinforcement |
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law of effect
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rewarded behavior is likely to recur
behavior with bad consequence less likely |
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positive reinforcement
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increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli
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negative reinforcement
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increasing behaviors by stopping/reducing negative stimuli
(removes punishing event) |
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operant chamber
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designed by skinner
box that has something animal presses to release a reward, records response |
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primary reinforcer
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satisfying biological need
unlearned and innately satisfying ie: getting food when hungry |
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conditioned/secondary reinforcer
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learned association with primary reinforcers
ex: rat learns light means food is coming, rat tries to turn on light light is conditioned reinforcer |
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classical conditioning
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is it learning associations between events it does not control?
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shaping
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reinforcers (ie: food) guide animals actions toward desire behavior
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extinction in operant conditioning
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lessening response when reinforcement stops
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continuous reinforcement
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reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs
learning occurs rapidly, extinction occurs rapidly |
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partial/intermittent reinforcement
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only reinforce part of the time
initial learning slower, greater resistance to extinction |
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fixed-ratio schedules
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reinforce only after a specified number of responses
ex: free coffee after buying 10 |
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variable-ratio schedules
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reinforces response after unpredictable number of responses
ex: slots. |
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fixed interval schedules
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reinforces only after a specified amount of time has passed
ex: checking mail more frequently closer to delivery time |
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variable-interval schedules
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reinforces a response at unpredictable time inverals
ex: you've got mail! rewards persistence in rechecking email never know when wait will end |
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positive punishment
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give adversive stimulus
ex: spank, parking ticket |
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negative punishment
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withdraw desirable stimulus
ex: time-out from privileges, revoked drivers license |
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punishment vs. reinforcement
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reinforcement: increases a behavior
punishment: decreases a behavior |
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cognitive map
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mental representation of layout of one's environment
ex: rat exploring maze, act as if they have cognitive map |
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latent learning
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becomes apparent only when some incentive to demonstrate it
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intrinsic motivation
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desire to perform behavior for own sake
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extrinsic motivation
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desire to behave in certain ways to receive external reward or avoid punishment
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biological predispositions
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can use food to teach hamster to dig because its natural
cant use food to teach face washing, not normally associated with food |
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instinctive drift
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occurs when animals revert to biologically predisposed patterns
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encoding
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get information into out brain
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storage
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retain information
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retrieval
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get information back out
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brain
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encodes sensory information into neural language
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sensory memory
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very brief recording of sensory info. on memory system
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short term memory
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holds a few items briefly, things we need right now
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long term memory
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permanent and limitless storage
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working memory
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associates new and old info to solve problems
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automatic processing
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without conscious effort process information about
space, time, frequency, well learned information (language) |
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effortful processing
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remember certain things only with effort/attention
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spacing effects
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retain information better when rehearsal is distributed over time
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levels of processing
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processing verbal information for storage, encoding meaning
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visual encoding
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encoding of picture images
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semantic encoding
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encoding of meaning, esp. of words
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acoustic encoding
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encoding of sound, esp. sound of words
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imagery
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mental pictures, help processing a lot
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mnemonics
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memory aids, use vivid imagery and acoustics
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chunking
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organizing items into familiar, manageable units
personally meaningful |
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peg word
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boosts memory through memorizing jingle
first word help memorize second word need to know two is a shoe |
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method of loci
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objects to be remembered are imagined in known locations
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iconic memory
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fleeting photographic memory
for few tenths of second |
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echoic memory
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impeccable but fleeting for auditory stimuli
lingers for 3-4 seconds |
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synaptic change
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when learning occurs, more serotonin released at certain synapses
become more efficient at transmitting |
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long term potentiation
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prolonged strengthening of potential neural firing
physical basis for memory |
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flashbulb memories
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clear memory of emotionally significant moment/event
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CREB
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protein that switches genes on/off
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declarative memories
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what we know with conscious recall
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procedural memories
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memories of skills/how to perform them
hard to describe in words |
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semantic memories
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general knowledge of world stored as facts, meanings, cateogires
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episodic memories
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memories of specific events stored in sequential series of events
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hippocampus
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new memories of names, images, events laid down here
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cerebellum
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plays role in forming/storing implicit memories created by classical conditioning
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memory recall
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ability to retrieve info. not in conscious awareness
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memory recognize
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identifying previously learned items
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memory: relearning
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measure of memory that assesses amount of time saved when learning material for 2nd time
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priming
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unconscious activation of particular memory associations
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cues
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memories held in storage by associations, each piece of info. interconnected with others
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semantic network
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graphic notation for representing knowledge in patterns of nodes-arcs
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spreading activation
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long-term memory contains interconnected information.
connections produce associations between units ex: think of word animal, think of many many other things associated |
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serial position curve
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recall accuracy varies as function of items position within study list
remember things at beginning/end of list more easily |
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von restorff effect
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item that stands out like sore thumb is more likely to be remembered
highlighted word on shopping list |
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deja vu
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occurs because current situation filled with cues that retrieve earlier, similar experience
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context dependent memory
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recall of information in same or similar place/situation as when memory was formed
memories more easily recalled if you are in same context as when it was made |
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state dependent memory
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rememberd better when person is in same mental, emotional or drug-induced state as when formed
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mood congruent memory
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emotions that accompany good/bad events become retrieval clues
being depressed helps to recall other bad times |
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encoding failure
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what we fail to encode we will never remembered
without effort, many memories wont form |
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memory decay
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initially, forget quickly, then levels off
three years out of Spanish, remember same as 25 years out |
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retrieval failure
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"its on the tip of my tongue"
memories there but inaccesible due to lack of info |
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retroactive interference
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new information makes it harder to recall older info
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proactive interference
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something learned earlier disrupts recall of something experienced later
given one number, then another, gets harder |
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motivated forgetting
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unknowingly changing own history
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repression
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forget painful memories to protect self and minimize anxiety (freud)
can be triggered later |
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misinformation effect
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after exposure to subtle misinformation, many people misremember
incorporating wrong information into memory of event |
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source amnesia
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attributing to wrong source an event we have experienced, heard, read or imaged
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anterograde amnesia
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selective memory defecit from brain injury
cant learn new information, old memory still there |
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retrograde amnesia
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unable to recall events before development of amnesia
trauma to hippocampus, temporal lobe |
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clive wearing
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had both anterograde and retrograde amnesia
lacks ability to form new memories |
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korksaoff syndrome
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caused by alcoholism, results lack of vit b in brain
caues retrograde/anterograde amnesia |
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thinking prototypes
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mental image/best example that incorporates all feature we associate with categorry
ex: robin and penguin both birds, people agree more quickly that robin is bird (resembles prototype) |
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algorithm
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step by step procedure guarantees solution
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heuristics
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simpler, speedier, more error prone than algorithm
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insight
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sudden realization of solution to problem
no strategy, just puzzle over problem |
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forming sub goals
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work on intermediate steps toward goal
ex. tower of hanoi |
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additive strategy
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costs and benefits of certain situation
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weighted average
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some things have more weight
(cheap cost of car over safety) |
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elimination by aspects
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set limits
(cost range for car 25,000, wont look above that level) |
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confirmation bias
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tendency to search for info that supports preconceptions, ignore contradictory evidence
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fixation
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inability to see a problem from fresh perspective
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functional fixedness
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think of things only in terms of usual functions
(search forever for screwdriver, coin could work) |
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mental sets
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approach a problem in one way which has been successful in past
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represetativeness
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judge likelihood of things in terms of how well they represent/match prototypes
ex: slim,short person likes poetry. Truck driver or teacher? TEACHER! |
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bae rate fallacy
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tendency to ignore base rate information when making judgements
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availability
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estimating likelihood of events based on availability in memory
if instances come to mind quickly, assume more common |
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fear factor
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people reason dramatically not quantitatively
ex: fear flying over driving, way more likely to die in car |
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overconfidence effect
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tendency to overestimate the accuracy of knowledge and judgements
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belief perseverance
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tendency to cling to beliefs in face of contrary evidence
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framing
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how issue is framed can affect decisions/judgment
ex: more surprise when 1in20 happens than 10 in 200. |
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anchor and adjust
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used to make someone say what you want them to
change attitude/give different answers by how question is framed |
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reasoning
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if p, then q
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spearman's little g model
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we all have one general intelligence "g"
underlines all intelligent behavior |
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independent factors
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independent categories of intelligence
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gardner's model
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viewed intelligence as multiple abilities that come in packages
ex: brain damage will destroy one ability but leave others intact |
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savant syndrome
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people who score low on intelligence tests but have an island of brilliance
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sternbergs triarchic theory
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theory of three intelligences
analytical (academic/problem solving)- assesed with intelligence tests creative - reactive to new situations, generating new ideas practical - everyday tasks, managerial skills, reading people |
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emotional intelligence
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comprehending social situations
perceived emotions - recognize them in faces, music, stories understand emotions - predict them, how they change manage emotions - know how to express them in varied situations |
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creativity
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ability to produce ideas that are both new and valuable
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brain size
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very modest correlation between brain size & intelligence
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synapses
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highly educated people die w/ 17% more synapes than less educated counterparts
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processing speed
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faster cognitive processing may allow more information to be acquired
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Binet's tests
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assumed all children follow same course of intellectual development, some more rapidly
goal: measure mental age |
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mental age
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level of performance associated with certain chronological age
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IQ
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mental age/chronological age X 100
worked with children, not adults (40 year old who equals 20 year old shouldnt have IQ of 50) |
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fluid abilities
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intelligence that correlates with measure of abstract reasoning and puzzle solving
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crystallized abilities
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intelligence that correlates with abilities that depend on knowledge and experience
vocab, general information, analogies |
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aptitude tests
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predict ability to learn new skill
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achievement tests
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intend to reflect what you have learned
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weschler's tests
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yields overall intelligence score and seperate score for
verbal comprehension, perceptual organization, working memory, processing speed |
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standardization of tests
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defining meaningful scores by comparison with performance of pre-tested group
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normal curve
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group members scores typically distributed in bell-shaped curve
most scores fall near average,fewer near extremes |
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reliability
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test that yields dependable, consistent scores
checked by retesting, checking odd versus even |
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content validity
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extent to which test samples behavior that is of interest
road test for license validity because it tests real situation |
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criterion validity
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success with which a test predicts behavior it is designed to predict
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IQ stability
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tests before age 3 dont predict intelligence
given to age 5 predict achievement after age 7 scores stabilize |
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intellectual disability
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scores fall at 70 or below
difficulty adapting to demands of life varies from mild to profound |
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down syndrome
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diability caused by extra 21 chromosome
problem in forming eggs/sperm not hereditary |
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PKU
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cant be treated
leads to severe retardation at age 3 genetic, rare cant breakdown phenylalnine |
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twin studies
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people who share same genes also share comparable mental abilities
IQ test scores of identical twins are is same one person took test twice |
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adoption studies
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adoption enhances intelligence score of mistreated kids
fraternal twins score more alike than other siblings |
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heritability estimate
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heredity credited w/ 50% of variation in intelligence
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early intervention
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poor environmental conditions override genetic differences
hinder cognitive development |
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cumulative defecit hypothesis
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poorer opportunity for those in poor SES
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washout effect
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IQ dissipate by 3rd grade
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advatnages of head start
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advantages-
less likely to get held back a year less likely to get put into special ED more like to graduate from HS more likely to hold a job in school girls less likely to get pregnant higher occupational goals higher self image about education |
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flynn effect
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increase in IQ scores over generations
environmental effects! |
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reaction range
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genes give range IQ scores can fall in
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environmental impact
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sensory, emotional or any deprivation leads to thinner than normal brain cortexes
delayed development |
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gender differences in spelling
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females better spellers
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gender differences in verbal
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females better verbal fluency/ remembering words
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gender differences in nonverbal memory
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females better at remembering/locating objects
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gender differences in sensation
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females more sensitive to touch, taste, odor
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gender differences math and spatial abilties
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males and females equal
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gender differences emotion detecting
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females better emotion detectors
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evidence for Bias
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test content and answers reflect cultural knowledge
phrasing of questions |
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evidence for no bias
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purpose of test is to predict school environment
biased test better predictor than culturally fair test because higher validity |
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stereotype threat
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black students took verbal test under conditions made to feel them feel threatened
performed lower |
