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285 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Naive Realism |
The belief that we see the world precisely as it is |
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Empiricism |
Knowledge gained through observation |
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Confirmation Bias |
Tendency to seek out evidence that supports a given belief and to distort/dismiss evidence against that belief |
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Belief Perserverance |
Tendency to stick to beliefs when evidence contradicts them |
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Metaphysical Claim |
Assertions that cannot be tested using scientific methods |
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Pseudoscience |
Claims/beliefs/practices that are marketed as scientific but are not (ex: astrology) |
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Patternicity |
Perceiving meaningful images in meaningless visual stimuli |
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Emotional Reasoning |
Using emotions as a guide to evaluate claims |
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Occam's Razor |
Ask if the explanation offered is the simplest possible explanation |
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Falsifiability |
Can the explanation can be proven false? (ex: Dragon in My Garage) |
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Replicability
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Have independent investigators recreated the experiment? |
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Correlation vs. Causation |
Correlation does not equal causation |
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Heuristic |
Mental shortcuts |
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Availability Heuristic |
Estimating the likelihood of something based on how available it is to our memory |
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External Validity |
Extent to which a study can relate to the real world |
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Internal Validity |
Extent to which a study can be used to make cause and effect inferences |
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Reliability |
Consistency of a measurement; ability for an instrument to give similar measurements in different situations |
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Validity |
Degree to which an instrument measures what it claims to measure (ex: length of ring finger cannot measure intelligence so it has low validity) |
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Naturalistic Observation |
Watching behavior in real-world setting. Pros: high external validity, true behavior, no interference Cons: Low internal validity, no control, difficult to find interesting behaviors |
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Case Studies |
Examination of one person/small group, often over a long period of time. Pros: provide existence proofs, can be springboard for new research Cons: can be too specific, takes advantage of those in poor situations, have to wait for availability |
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Survey and Self-Report |
Use of questionnaires to obtain info from large numbers of people. Pros: fast, easy Cons: can be inaccurate, can contain response sets |
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Correlational Designs |
Extent to which 2 variables are related. "r" denotes a correlation, which can be positive, negative, or zero. |
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Experimental Designs |
Research design that utilizes random assignment of participants and manipulation of independent variable |
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Experimental Group |
Receive manipulated variable |
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Blind vs. Double Blind |
Blind: participants don't know if they're in the control or experimental group Double Blind: participants and researchers don't know if participants are in the experimental or control group |
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Experimenter Expectancy Effect |
Experimenter unknowingly creates bias in the outcome of a study |
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Independent vs. Dependent Variable |
Independent: manipulated by experimenter Dependent: measured |
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Operationalization |
Strictly defining variables into measurable factors |
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Central Tendency |
Shows the central score or where the data gathers |
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Variability |
How spread out or tightly clustered the data is |
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Cell body |
Center of neuron, contains nucleus |
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Dendrites |
Branchlike extensions of of neuron that receive info from other neurons |
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Axon |
Tail of neuron that sends signals to other neurons |
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Axon Terminal |
Contain synaptic vesicles that contain neurotransmitters |
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Myelin Sheath |
Fatty wrapper around axons that helps to speed communication |
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Glial Cells |
"Glue" cells, non-neural, produce myelin. 4 Functions: surround neurons and hold them in place, supply nutrients/oxygen to neurons, insulate neurons from one another, destroy pathogens and remove dead neurons. |
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Action Potential |
Electrical impulse that travels down axon, triggering the release of neurotransmitters. |
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"All or nothing" |
A neuron fires at constant strength once the threshold is reached. |
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Resting Potential |
The neuron is more negative than outside of the neuron |
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Absolute Refractory Period |
Period of time after firing that a neuron cannot fire, limiting maximal firing rate. |
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Presynaptic |
Being/occurring on the transmitting/sending side of a neuron |
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Postsynaptic |
Being/occurring on the receiving side of a neuron |
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Neurotransmitter |
Chemical messenger that allows communication between neurons |
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Reuptake |
Neurotransmitters are absorbed back into the axon terminal and recycled |
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Excitatory vs. Inhibitory |
Excitatory: makes postsynaptic cell more likely to fire (ex: glutamate) Inhibitory: makes postsynaptic cell less likely to fire (ex: GABA) |
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Agonists vs. Antagonists |
Agonists: increase receptor activity Antagonists: block receptor activity |
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Reuptake Inhibitor |
Block reuptake, allowing more neurotransmitters to remain in the synapse |
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Neural Plasticity |
Ability of nervous system to change/adapt through growth of new dendrites, formation of new synapses (synaptogenesis), death of neurons to remove useless connections (pruning), and myelination |
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Central Nervous System (CNS) |
Brain and spinal cord, controls mind and behavior |
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Peripheral Nervous System |
Nerves that extend beyond CNS |
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Sensory Neurons |
Carry info from body to brain (afferent) |
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Motor Neurons |
Carry info from brain to body (efferent) |
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Interneurons |
Send messages to nearby neurons, allow reflexes |
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Forebrain |
Also called cerebrum, most highly developed in human brains, split into two hemispheres connected by corpus callosum. |
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Four Lobes |
Frontal, Parietal, Occipital, Temporal |
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Frontal Lobe |
Motor function, language, memory. Motor cortex. Executive Function: control and management of other cognitive processes. |
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Parietal Lobe |
Touch and perception. Somatosensory Cortex: pressure, pain, temp, tracks objects' locations/shapes |
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Temporal Lobe |
Hearing, understanding language, memory storage |
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Limbic System |
Emotional center of brain. Smell, motivation, memory. Thalamus, Hypothalamus, Amygdala, Hippocampus |
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Thalamus |
Sensory relay station; regulates sleep |
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Hypothalamus |
Organizes behaviors related to four F's: fight, flight, food, sex |
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Amygdala |
Excitement, arousal, fear |
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Hippocampus |
Memory, especially spatial memory and memory formation |
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Brain Stem |
Located between spinal cord and cortex, performs basic life functions. Consists of medulla, midbrain, and pons |
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Midbrain |
Movement, tracking visual stimuli |
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Medulla |
Basic functions like heartbeat, breathing |
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Pons |
Coordinates between cerebellum and cortex triggers, controls dreams |
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Cerebellum |
Balance, coordinated movement, motor skills |
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Somatic vs. Autonomic |
Somatic: carries messages from CNS to limbs and organs Autonomic: controls involuntary actions, sympathetic and parasympathetic |
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Sympathetic vs. Parasympathetic |
Sympathetic: active during crisis (fight or flight) Parasympathetic: active when not threatened (rest and digest) |
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Electroencephalograph (EEG) |
Records brain activity using electrodes. Non-invasive, cheap, shows rapid changes, can't show where activity is originating from. |
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Positron Emission Topography (PET) |
Shows brain's consumption of radioactive glucose molecules. Shows where activity takes place, but is invasive. |
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fMRI |
Measures increased blood flow in brain. Shows where activity originates, can't show time course, expensive. |
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Cross-Sectional Design |
Examines people of different ages at a single point in time, doesn't account for cohort affect. |
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Longitudinal Design |
Examines development of the same people at multiple points in time. |
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Gene-Environment Interactions |
Impact of genes is dependent on environment (ex: tanning) |
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Nature via Nurture |
Genetic predisposition drives individual to create an environment that further develops a natural trait |
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Gene Expression |
Environmental events cause a gene to turn on (ex: depression following death of a loved one) |
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Cognitive Development |
Study of how children learn to think, reason, communicate, and remember |
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Stages vs. Continuum |
Are there distinguished periods of development or do changes happen continuously? |
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Domain General vs. Domain Specific |
Do certain changes affect all cognitive abilities or do certain changes affect individual cognitive abilities? |
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Piagetian Theory |
Children's thinking is qualitatively different than adults'. Children advance through stages. |
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Assimilation |
Absorbing new experiences into CURRENT ideas and representations of the world |
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Accommodation |
Altering/adjusting of current ideas/representations to be more compatible with acquired knowledge |
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Sensorimotor Stage |
0-2 years old; lack object permanence; thoughts are limited to immediate physical experience |
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Preoperational Stage |
2-7 years old; can think about things that aren't there; egocentrism; lack conservation |
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Concrete Operational
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7-11 years old; have conservation; simple logic and operations; can't think hypothetically |
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Formal Operations |
11 years and onward; can think about abstract ideas; can plan |
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Harlow's Monkeys |
Baby monkeys preferred soft, warm "mother" as opposed to cold, hard "mother" with food. Proves existence of contact comfort. |
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Permissive Parenting |
lenient, little discipline, lots of affection |
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Authoritarian Parenting |
Strict, punishing, little affection |
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Authoritative Parenting |
Supportive but with clear, firm limits |
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Sensation |
Detection of energy by sense organs |
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Perception |
Brain's interpretation of sensory data |
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Transduction |
Conversion of external stimulus to neural signal |
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Sensory Adaptation |
Stimuli that are encountered frequently cause weaker activation the more they are encountered. Activation is greatest when stimuli is first encountered. |
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Psychophysics |
Study of how we perceive stimuli |
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Absolute Threshold |
Lowest level of stimulus needed to be detected 50% of the time (ex: the dimmest light you can detect, the quietest sound you can hear) |
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Just Noticeable Difference |
Smallest change in intensity of a stimulus we can detect. |
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Weber's Law |
Proportional relationship between the JND and original stimulus |
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Signal Detection Theory |
Theory regarding how stimuli are detected under different conditions |
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McGurk Effect |
visual information affects the interpretation of auditory stimuli |
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Synesthesia |
Experiencing cross-modal sensations (ex: numbers appearing in different colors) |
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Inattentional Blindness |
Failure to detect stimuli when attention is focused elsewhere |
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Change Blindness |
Inability to detect large changes in an environment |
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Sclera |
White of eye |
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Pupil |
Hole in eye through which light enters |
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Iris |
Colored portion of eye |
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Cornea |
Curved clear layer over iris that allows eye to focus light |
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Lens |
Oval-shaped disc that bends light |
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Myopia |
nearsightedness |
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Hyperopia |
farsightedness |
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Retina |
Membrane at back of eye that converts light to neural signal |
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Fovea |
Responsible for sharpness of vision |
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Rods |
Respond to low levels of light; not color sensitive |
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Cones |
Responsible for fine detail; color sensitive |
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Optic Nerve |
Travels from retina to brain |
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Feature Detector Cells |
Allow us to detect lines and edges |
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Simple cells vs. Complex cells |
Simple: orientation-specific slits of light in a certain location Complex: orientation specific slits of light not dependent on location |
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Trichromatic Theory |
We are sensitive to three kinds of light because there are 3 types of cones |
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Opponent Process Theory |
We perceive colors in terms of three pairs of opponent colors; cells that respond to one color are inhibited by another. |
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Blindness |
Vision is 20/200 or worse |
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Motion Blindness |
can't see in seamless motion |
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Visual Agnosia |
object recognition deficit |
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Outer Ear |
pinna, ear canal, eardrum |
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Pinna |
part of ear you can see |
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Ear Canal |
funnels sound to eardrum |
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Eardrum |
tympanic membrane; vibrates in response to sound and transports sound to middle ear |
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Middle Ear |
Hammer, anvil, stirrup |
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Cochlea |
Spiral shaped structure; converts sound to neural signal. Contains basilar membrane. |
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Place Theory |
different frequencies of sound excite different places on Basilar Membrane. |
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Frequency Theory |
rate of neuronal firing is proportional to the pitch/frequency of sound |
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Conductive Deafness |
due to malfunctioning of the ear |
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Nerve Deafness |
damage of auditory nerve |
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Olfaction |
Sense of smell |
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Gustation |
Sense of taste |
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Three Body Systems |
Somatosensory, Proprioception, Vestibular Sense |
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Somatosensory |
responds to stimuli applied to skin, temperature, injury |
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Mechanoreceptors |
sense light touch and deep pressure |
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Free Nerve Endings |
sense touch, temp, and pain |
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Gate Control Model |
Neural mechanism in spinal cord that blocks pain |
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Proprioception |
Keeps track of movement, where body parts are |
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Vestibular Sense |
sense of equilibrium |
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Parallel Processing |
Brain can process multiple things at once |
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Bottom-Up Processing |
constructing a representation of something from scratch |
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Top-Down Processing |
constructing a representation of something from preconceived notions |
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Size Constancy |
Objects appear to be different sizes although they are the same because of their position |
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Color Constancy |
Ability to perceive color consistently across different levels of lighting |
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Depth Perception |
Ability to judge distances/3D relations |
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Motion Parallax |
Ability to judge distance of moving objects from their speed |
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Habituation |
responding less strongly over time to a repeated stimuli |
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Sensitization |
responding more strongly over time to a repeated stimuli |
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Unconditioned Stimulus |
stimulus that elicits an automatic response |
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Unconditioned Response |
Automatic response that does not need to be learned |
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Conditioned Stimulus |
Initially neutral stimulus that comes to eventually elicit a response |
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Conditioned Response |
Response that is eventually elicitied by conditioned stimulus |
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Acquisition |
phase during which a conditioned response is established |
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Extinction |
reduction/elimination of the conditioned response after the conditioned stimulus is presented repeatedly without the unconditioned stimulus |
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Spontaneous Recovery |
sudden reemergence of conditioned response after extinction |
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Stimulus Generalization |
When stimulus similar to the conditioned stimulus elecits a response |
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Stimulus Discrimination |
When a stimulus similar to the conditioned stimulus does not elicit a response |
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Operant Conditioning |
learning controlled by consequence of behavior |
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Law of Effect |
If a behavior results in a reward, that behavior is more likely to occur again |
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Skinner Box |
chamber to allow sustained periods of conditioning |
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Reinforcement |
outcome/consequence that strengthens the probability of a behavior |
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Punishment |
outcome/consequence that weakens the probability of a behavior |
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Positive ____________ |
Giving a stimulus |
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Negative _______________ |
Removal of a stimulus |
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Continuous Reinforcement |
Reinforcing a behavior every time it occurs, fast learning but fast extinction |
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Partial Reinforcement |
occasionally reinforcing a behavior, resulting in slower extinction |
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Fixed Consistency of Reinforcement |
Occurs on a regular basis |
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Variable Consistency of Reinforcement |
Occurs irregularly |
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Ratio Basis of Administering Reinforcement |
Reinforcement is given based on number of responses |
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Interval Basis of Administering Reinforcement |
Reinforcement is given based on interval of time (ex: paycheck) |
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Discriminative Stimulus |
signals the presence of reinforcement (ex: "Good boy!") |
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Higher Order Conditioning |
developing a conditioned response to a conditioned stimulus because of its association with another conditioned stimulus |
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Primary Reinforcer |
item/outcome that naturally increases target behavior |
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Secondary Reinforcer |
neutral object that becomes associated with primary reinforcer |
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Latent Learning |
learning that isn't directly observable |
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Observational Learning |
Learning that occurs from watching others |
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Hyperthermesia |
extreme autobiographical memory
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Sensory Memory |
brief storage of perceptual info before its passed to STM |
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Iconic Memory |
visual, lasts 1 second |
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Echoic Memory |
auditory, lasts 5-10 seconds |
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Short Term Memory |
retains info for limited duration; lasts 5-20 seconds |
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Retroactive Interference |
learning new info hampers earlier learning |
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Proactive Inference |
earlier learning gets in the way of new learning |
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STM Capacity |
span is limited, STM can remember about 7 items |
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Chunking |
organizing info into meaningful groups allows us to extend the span of STM |
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Rehearsal |
repeating info to extend the span of STM |
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Long Term Memory (LTM) |
enduring retention of information |
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Explicit Memory |
memories that can be recalled intentionally |
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Semantic memory |
knowledge of the world |
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Episodic memory |
biographical information |
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Implicit memory |
previous experiences influences performance of a task (like riding a bike) |
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Procedural memory |
how to do things |
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Priming |
ability to identify and react to a stimulus when we've encountered it before |
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Encoding |
getting info into memory |
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Storage |
keeping info in memory |
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Retrieval |
reactivation/reconstruction of info from memory |
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Schema |
organized knowledge model/structure stored in memory, including scripts (ex: what the inside of a post office looks like, what happens in a post office) |
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Retrograde Amnesia vs Anterograde Amnesia |
Retrograde: loss of memories from past Anterograde: inability to form new memories |
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Alzheimer's Disease |
Loss of cortical tissue impacts memory |
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Flashbulb Memory |
emotional memory that seems very detailed, but can be subconsciously altered |
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source monitoring confusion |
lack of clarity about the origin of a memory |
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Phonemes |
sounds |
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Morphemes |
meaningful parts of words |
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syntax |
structure |
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Extralinguistic Information |
part of communication that is not part of content but is critical for interpreting meaning, like facial expression |
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Linguistic Determinism |
language defines our thinking |
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Linguistic Relativity |
characteristics of language shape our thought processes |
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g vs. s |
g: general intelligence s: factors unique to mental tasks |
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Fluid Intelligence |
capacity to learn new ways of solving problems |
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Crystalized Intelligence |
knowledge of the world acquired over time |
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Multiple Intelligences |
people's abilities vary among different domains of skill |
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Analytical Intelligence |
book smart |
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Practical Intelligence |
street smart |
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Creative Intelligence |
the ability to come up with answers |
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James-Lange Theory |
emotions are a result of body's reaction to stimuli |
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Canon-Bard Theory |
emotions and bodily reactions occur simultaneously |
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Two-Factor Theory |
An undifferentiated feeling of arousal leads to a subconscious explanation of that arousal (attractive woman on a bridge) |
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Nonverbal Leakage |
spillover of emotions into non-verbal behavior |
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Illustrators |
gestures that highlight speech |
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Manipulators |
Gestures in which one body part strokes/touches/bites another (twirling hair, biting nails) |
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Emblems |
Gestures that convey conventional meaning (peace sign) |
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Personal space |
varies between cultures |
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Broaden and Build Theory |
happiness may assist in our ability to think more openly and perform tasks better |
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Drive Reduction Theory |
certain drives motivate us to act in ways that minimize aversive states |
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Conflicting Drives |
Some drives lead us to approach certain stimuli while others lead to avoidance |
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Approach-Approach vs. Avoidance-Avoidance |
two good things vs. two bad things |
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Approach-Avoidance, Double Approach-Avoidance |
good and bad aspects, multiple choices with good and bad aspects |
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Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motivation |
Intrinsic: internal goals and satisfaction Extrinsic: external goals and rewards |
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Lateral and ventromedial hypothalamus |
Lateral: signals to start eating Ventromedial: signals to stop eating (start up the LADDER to shut off the VENT) |
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3 Principles of Attraction |
proximity, similarity, reciprocity |
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Upward vs. Downward Social Comparison |
Upward: compare yourself to somebody you view as superior Downward: compare yourself to somebody you view as inferior |
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Social facilitation |
Enhancement of performance when around others |
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Social disruption |
perform worse when there are others around |
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Fundamental Attribution Error |
Overestimate the impact of personality, underestimate the impact of situational influence |
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Conformity |
tendency to alter behavior as a result of peer pressure |
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Deindividuation |
tendency to participate in uncharacteristic behavior when identity has been stripped (saying mean things online) |
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Groupthink |
Emphasis on group unanimity at the expense of critical thinking |
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Group polarization |
tendency of group discussion to strengthen the dominant position held by individual group members |
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Pluralistic Ignorance |
error of assuming that nobody else perceives a situation like we do |
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Cognitive Dissonance |
unpleasant mental tension because of two conflicting beliefs, causing us to want to rationalize it |
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Central vs. Peripheral Route of Persuasion |
Central: evaluate a situation's merits Peripheral: focus on the surface attributes (beer commercial) |
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Nomothetic vs Idiographic Approach to Personality |
Nomothetic: focuses on general laws that are true of all individuals Idiographic: focuses on unique individual characteristics |
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The Id |
Primitive impulses |
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The Ego |
sense of morality |
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The Superego |
The boss; decides between the id and the superego |
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The Big 5 |
Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism |
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Basic tendencies vs. Characteristic adaptations |
underlying personality traits; behavior manifestations |
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Behavioral Approach to Personality |
differences in personality stem from genetics and learning |
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Social learning |
Thinking is as important as learning in shaping personality |
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Reciprocal Determinism |
personality, behavior, cognition, and the environment all affect one another |
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Locus of Control |
wether people believe that punishers and reinforcers lie inside or outside their control |
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Psychopathology |
mental illness |
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Failure Analysis Approach |
examines breakdowns in mental functioning |
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Biopsychosocial |
dealing with biological, social, and psychological aspects |
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Anxiety |
uneasiness or distress caused by fear of danger/ misfortune affecting 3% of population; most common among whites/females; 1/3 developed after traumatic events |
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Obsessive Compulsive Disorder |
anxiety disorder marked by repeated/lengthy immersions in obsessions, compulsions, or both |
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Obsession |
intrusive and repeated thoughts or images |
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Compulsion |
repetitive behavior aimed to prevent stress |
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Explanation for Anxiety Disorders |
Learning, differences in thinking, genetics |
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Mood Disorders |
marked by long-lasting extremes in mood. |
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Major Depressive Disorder |
most common mood disorder, affects 16% of population |
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Interpersonal Model of Depression |
views depression as a social disorder |
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Behavioral Model of Depression |
Loss of positive reinforcement leads to depression; cycle |
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Learned Helplessness in depression |
tendency to feel helpless in the face of events we can't control (like an elephant tied down although it can break the chains) |
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Cognitive Model of Depression |
depression caused by negative thoughts/beliefs |
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Biological Model of Depression |
difference in neurotransmitter function causes depression |
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Personality Disorders |
High comorbidity with other disorders; historically the most commonly misdiagnosed |
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Borderline Personality Disorder |
Most common in females; 2% of population; mood instability; impulsivity; self-destructiveness |
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Explanations of Borderline Personality Disorder |
- feelings of abandonment -childhood problems -emotional cascades due to overthinking -splitting everything into "good" and "bad" |
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Psychopathic Personality Disorder |
- most common in men - charming, dishonest, manipulative, self-centeredness, risk-taking - overlaps with Antisocial Disorder - 25% of prison population |
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Explanations of Psychopathy |
lack of fear; need for arousal |
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Dissociative Identity Disorder |
2 or more distinct personality states |
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Post-traumatic Model of DID |
Arises from abuse; different personalities protect the subconscious mind from harm |
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Sociocognitive Model of DID |
the idea of DID is acquired from others (esp. in therapy) |
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Depersonalization Disorder |
- feeling detached from oneself -only considered a disorder if it happens frequently |
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Dissociative Amnesia |
inability to recall personal events/info after trauma |
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Dissociative Fugue |
sudden, unexpected travel away from home/work; forget important life events; just start life over. Extremely rare. |
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Schizophrenia |
disturbed thinking, emotions, perception, behavior; 50% of psych institution population |
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Symptoms of Schizophrenia |
Delusions, hallucinations, social withdrawal |
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Explanations for Schizophrenia |
Brain differences, neurotransmitters, genetics, vulnerability |
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Diathesis Stress Model for Schizophrenia |
genetic vulnerability to be affected by schizophrenia is emphasized by stress |
