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143 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Learning
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Systematic, relatively permanent change in behavior.
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Behaviorism
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Theory of learning that focuses on observable behaviors.
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Associative Learning
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When we make a connection between two events.
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Conditioning
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Process of learning associations.
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Classical Conditioning
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A neutral stimulus (flower) is associated with a meaningful stimulus (pain of a bee sting) and elicits a similar response (fear)
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Operant Conditioning
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Learning the association between a behavior and a consequence. (Getting money for good grades)
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Observational learning
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Learning that takes place when a person observes and imitates another's behavior.
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Unconditional Stimulus UCS
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Stimulus that produces a response without prior learning. (food in Pavlov's study)
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Unconditioned Response UCR
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Unlearned reaction that is elicited by the UCS.
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Conditioned Stimulus CS
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Previously neutral stimulus that elicits a conditioned response after being paired with the unconditional stimulus.
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Conditioned Response CR
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The learned response to the conditioned stimulus that occurs after CS-UCS pairing. (When the dog heard the bell it salivated)
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Acquisition
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The initial learning of the connection between the UCS and the CS.
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Contiguity
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The CS and UCS are presented closely together.
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Generalization
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The tendency of a new stimulus that is similar to the original CS to elicit a response that is similar to the CR.
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Discrimination
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The process of learning to respond to certain stimuli and not to others.
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Extinction
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The weakening of a CR when the UCS is absent.
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Spontaneous Recovery
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The process in classical conditioning where a CR can recur after a time delay, without further conditioning. (Thinking you forgot about an ex- gf or bf but something like song reminds you of them).
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Renewal
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The recovery of the CR when the organism is placed in a novel context. (Drug addict leaves rehab)
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Counterconditioning
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Classical conditioning procedure for changing the relationship between a conditioned stimulus and its conditioned response.
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Systematic Desensitization
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Therapy that treats anxiety by teaching the client to associate relaxation with anxiety producing situations.
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Aversive Conditioning
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Treatment that consists of repeating pairings of a stimulus with an unpleasant stimulus. (To reduce drinking, each time a person drank alcohol, they would consume a mixture that induced nausea)
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Immunosuppression
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Decrease in production of antibodies.
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Operant Conditioning
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Form of associative learning in which the consequences of a behavior change the probability of the behavior's occurrence.
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Thorndike's Law of Effect
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Behaviors followed by positive outcomes are strengthened and behavior's followed by negative outcomes are weakend.
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Shaping
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Rewarding desired behaviors.
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Reinforcement
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Rewarding a stimulus or event following a behavior will increase the probabiltity of the behavior happening again.
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Positive Reinforcement
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Frequency of a behavior increases b/c it is followed by something positive. (Saying hello and receiving a smile in return)
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Negative Reinforcement
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The frequency of a behavior increases b/c it is followed by the removal of something unpleasant. (Your dad stops screaming for you to clean your room after you have done it)
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Primary Reinforcer
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Unlearned satisfaction. (food, water, sex)
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Secondary Reinforcer
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Acquires positive value through experience. (money, good grades)
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Generalization
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Performing a reinforced behavior in a different situation.
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Discrimination
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Responding to stimuli that signal that a behavior will or will not be reinforced.
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Extinction
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A behavior is no longer reinforced and decreases.
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Partial Reinforcement
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A reinforcer follows a behavior only a portion of the time. (You can't ace every test)
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Continuous Reinforcement
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Behavior is reinforced every time it occurs.
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Schedules of Reinforcement
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Specific patterns that determine when a behavior will be reinforced.
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Ratio Schedules
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The number of behaviors that must be performed prior to reward.
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Interval Schedules
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The amount of time that must pass before a behavior is rewarded.
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Fixed Ratio Schedule
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Reinforces a behavior after a set number of behaviors.
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Variable ratio schedule
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A timetable in which behaviors are rewarded an average number of times but on an unpredictable basis. (Slot machines)
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Fixed-interval schedule
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Reinforces the first behavior after a fixed amount of time has passed. (Cramming at the last minute before a test)
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Variable Interval Schedule
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A timetable where a behavior is reinforced after a variable amount pf time has passed. (pop quizzes or fishing)
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Punishment
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A consequence that decreases the likelihood that a behavior will occur. (Touching a hot stove)
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Positive Punishment
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Behavior decreases when it is followed by and unpleasant stimulus. (Getting a spanking)
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Negative Punishment
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Behavior decreases when a positive stimulus is removed. (Being grounded b/c it involves taking away a teen's freedom)
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Applied Behavior Analysis
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The use of operant conditioning principles to change human behavior.
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Retention
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Encoding information and keeping it in memory so you can retrieve it
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Motor Reproduction
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The process of imitating the model's actions.
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Badura's Observational Learning
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Attention, Retention, Motor reproduction, Reinforcement or incentive conditions.
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Reinforcement
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Whether the model's behavior is followed by a consequence.
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Purposiveness
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Much of behavior is goal-directed.
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Latent Learning
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Unreinforced learning that is not immediately reflected in behavior.
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Insight Learning
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Form of problem solving in which the organism develops a sudden insight into understanding a problem's solution.
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Preparedness
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The species-specific biological predisposition to learn in certain ways but not others.
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Mindset
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The way our beliefs about out ability dictate what goals we set for ourselves, what we think we can learn, and what we do learn.
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Memory
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the retention of info over time.
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Encoding
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How info gets into memory storage
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Divided attention
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Affects memory encoding.
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Levels of Processing
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(Memory) Shallow to intermediate to deep
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Elaboration
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Number of diff connections that are made around a stimulus at any given level of memory encoding.
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Atkinson-Shiffrin Theory
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MEmory storage involves 3 separate systems: Sensory memory , short term memory, long term memory
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Sensory MEmory
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holds info for only an instant
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Echoic Memory
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Auditory sensory memory (lasts a few sec.)
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Iconic Memory
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Visual sensory memory (lasts 1/4th of a sec)
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Short Term Memory
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Limited capacity memory system when info is retained for only 30 sec
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Memory Span
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The number of digits an individual can report back in order after a single presentation of them.
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Chunking
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Packing info that can be remembered as single units.
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Working Memory
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Allows us to hold info temporarily as we perform cognitive tasks.
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Long Term Memory
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Relatively permanent memory that stores huge amounts of info for a long time.
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Explicit Memory
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The conscious recollection of info. (facts, events)
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Episodic Memory
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The retention of info about the where, when , and what of life's happenings.
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Semantic Memory
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A person's knowledge about the world.
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Implicit Memory
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memory in which behavior is affected by prior experience without a conscious recollection of that experience.
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Procedural Memory
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Implicit memory process that involves memory for skills.
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Priming
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The activation of info that ppl already have in storage to help them remember new info better and faster.
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Schema
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Preexisting mental concept that helps ppl organize info.
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Script
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A schema for an event.
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Nodes
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Locations of neural activity
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Retrieval
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Info that was retained in memory comes out of storage.
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Serial Position Effect
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The tendency to recall the items at the beginning and end of a list but not the middle
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Primacy Effect
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You can recall items at the beginning of a list.
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Recency Effect
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You can recall items at the end of a list
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Recall
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Individual has to retrieve previously learned info. (In-class essays)
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Recognition
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Individual only has to identify learned items. (multiple choice tests)
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Auto-biographical memory
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Episodic memory: When a person recollects aspects of their own life experiences.
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Flashbulb Memory
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Emotionally significant events that people recall with more accuracy than everyday events.
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Repression
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Defense mechanism where a person is so traumatized by an event that he/she forgets it.
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Motivated Forgetting
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When an individual forgets something b/c it is too painful that remembering is intolerable.
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Encoding Failure
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Occurs when the info was never entered into long-term memory.
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Interference Theory
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Ppl forget b/c other info gets in the way of what they want to remember.
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Proactive interference
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The material that was earlier learned disrupts the recall of material learned later. (Calling a new friend by an old friend's name who is similar sounding)
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Retroactive Interference
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Material learned later disrupts the retrieval of info learned earlier.
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Decay theory
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When we learn something new, a neurochemical memory trace forms but over time the trace disintegrates.
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Tip of the tongue phenomenon
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when we are confident that we know something but we cannot pull it out of memory.
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Retrospective Memory
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Remembering the past
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Prospective Memory
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Remembering info about doing something in the future.
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Amnesia
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Loss of memory
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Anterograde Amnesia
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Memory disorder that affects the retention of new info
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Retrograde Amnesia
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Memory loss for a segment in the past but not new events.
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Cognition
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The way info is processed and manipulated in remembering thinking, and knowing
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Artificial intelligence
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creating machines capable of performing activities that require intelligence when they are done by ppl
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Thinking
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Manipulating info by performing concepts, solving problems, making decisions, and reflecting in a critical or creative manner.
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Concepts
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Mental categories that are used to group objects, events and characteristics.
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Prototype model
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When ppl evaluate whether a given item reflects a certain concept.
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Problem Solving
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Finding an appropriate way to attain a goal when the goal is not readily available.
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Subgoaling
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Setting intermediate goals that put us in a better position for reaching the final goal.
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Algorithms
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Strategies that guarantee a solution to the problem.
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Heuristics
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Shortcut strategies or guidelines that suggest a solution to a problem but do not guarantee an answer.
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Fixation
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Using prior strategy and failing to look at a problem from a fresh new perspective.
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Functional Fixedness
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Individuals fail to solve a problem b/c they are fixated on a thing's usual functions.
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Inductive Reasoning
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Reasoning from specific observations to make generalizations.
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Reasoning
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the mental activity of transforming info to reach conclusions.
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Deductive Reasoning
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Reasoning form a general cause that we know to be true to a specific instance. (Draw conclusions based on facts)
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Decision Making
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Evaluating alternatives and choosing among them.
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Confirmation Bias
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The tendency to search for and use info that supports our ideas.
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Hindsight Bias
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Tendency to report falsely, after the fact, we accurately predicted an outcome.
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Availability Heuristic
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A prediction about the probability of an event based on the case of recalling or imagining similar events.
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Based rate fallacy
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The tendency to ignore info about general principles in favor of very specific but vivid info.
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Representativeness heuristic
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the tendency to make judgments about group membership based on physical appearances or the stereotype of a group.
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Mindfulness
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Being alert and mentally present for one's everyday activities.
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Open-mindedness
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Being receptive to other ways of looking at things.
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Creativity
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The ability to think about something in novel and unusual ways and to devise unconventional solutions to problems.
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Divergent thinking
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Produce many solutions to the problem.
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Convergent thinking
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Produces the single best solution to the problem.
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Intelligence
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Ability to do well on cognitive tasks, to solve problems, and to learn from experience.
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Validity
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The extent to which a test measures what it is intended to measure.
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Reliability
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The extent to which a test yields a consistent measure of performance.
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Standardization
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Developing uniform procedures for administering and scoring a test.
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Mental age
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An individual's level of mental development relative to that of others.
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Normal distribution
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Symmetrical, bell shaped curve, with the majority of the scores falling in the middle and few score appearing towards the extremes of the range.
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Culture-fair tests
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Intelligence tests that are intended to be culturally unbiased.
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Heritability
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The proportion of observable differences in a group that can be explained by differences in the genes of a group's members.
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Gifted
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Have a high intelligence and or superior talent.
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Mental retardation
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condition of limited mental ability in which an individual has a low IQ and has difficulty adapting to everyday life.
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Organic retardation
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Mental retardation caused by a genetic disorder or by brain damage.
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Cultural-familial retardation
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Mental deficit with no evidence of organic brain damage.
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Language
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Form of communication based on a system of symbols.
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Infinite Generativity
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The ability to produce an endless number of meaningful sentences.
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Phonology
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A language's sound system.
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Morphology
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A language's rules for word formation.
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Syntax
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A language's rules for combining words to form acceptable phrases and sentences
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Semantics
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The meaning of words and sentences in a particular language.
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Pragmatics
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The ability of language to communicate even more meaning than is said.
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