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235 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Jean Piaget (1896-1980)
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• Believed in fixed sequence of universal stages
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Piaget's Cognitive Theory
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• Four distinct stages;
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First stage of cognitive theory
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sensorimotor, occurring from birth to age 2
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important accomplishment of sensorimotor stage
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object permanence
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○ Object permanence
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§ The realization that objects including people still exist when they cannot be seen, touched, or heard
§ Why peek-a-boo works § Piaget believed it appeared at 8 months § Does classic design assess concept well? § Newer research suggests it appears earlier □ Teddy bear behind screens example □ Suggest that babies can see object permanence at 2 1/2 months |
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Second stage of cognitive theory
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Preoperational stage
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• Preoperational stage
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○ Second stage occurs from age 2-6
○ Operations refers to mental actions that allow a child to reason about events he or she experiences: the use of formal, logical mental processes ○ "Pre" suggestive of limitations |
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Egocentrism shortcoming in preoperational stage
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§ Refers to the tendency of a person to confuse his or her own point of view and that of another person
§ Not selfishness, as much as centering on the self in thinking |
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○ Classification skills shortcoming in preoperational stage
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§ Refers to the placement of objects in groups or categories according to some specific standard or criteria
§ Can classify objects on one dimension § Problem of categories and subcategories |
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○ Conservation shortcoming in preoperational stage
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§ Refers to the understanding that basic physical dimensions remain the same despite superficial change in the object's appearance (number, mass, distance, volume, and area)
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third stage of cognitive theory
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concrete operations
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Concrete operations
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hird stage, occurs from 7-11 ○ Children's cognitive actions are applied to concrete object or events; logic is used
○ Classification and conservation achieved ○ Main limitation is that children remain tied to concrete, physical reality; they are unable to understand truly abstract or hypothetical questions, or ones that involve formal logic |
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fourth stage of cognitive theory
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formal operations change
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• Formal operations change
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○ Fourth and final stage, occurs age 12 through adolescence
○ Gradual develop through physical maturation and environmental maturation |
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Differences of formal operations stage from concrete operations
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i. Emphasis on possible vs. real
ii. Use of scientific reasoning iii. Logically combining ideas 1) Will ryan braun hit a homerun? 2) Pre formal operations change thing of only one factor |
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Limitations of formal operations change
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§ When they begin to use abstract thought they become overly impressed with this skill
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• Problems with Piaget's stage approach
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○ Individual and cultural differences
○ Inconsistencies of tasks between an individual |
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• Problem of underestimation children's abilities in Piaget's approach
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○ More sophisticated at earlier ages then he thought
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• Problem of overestimation how much people use formal operational thought in Piaget's approach
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○ Most studies that between 40 and 60 percent of college students and adults fully achieve formal operational thought
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• Problem of underestimation the importance of the social and cultural environment; Vygotsky and "zone of proximal development." in Piaget's approach
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○ Level at which child can almost but not fully perform a task on their own
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Stages of Psychosocial Development
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• Developed by Eric Erikson
• Psychosocial refers to union between physical needs and culture/environment • Stages go from birth to old age • Conflict="crisis" • Trying to revolve crisis from each stage and trying |
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• Resolution at crisis at each stage is never absolute
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○ Trust/mistrust
○ Don't want to trust everyone or mistrust everyone ○ Importance of favorable ratio |
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1. Trust vs. Mistrust
stage of psychosocial development |
a. Birth to about age 1
b. Trust develops when infant believes it can count on satisfaction of needs c. Mistrust occurs if the infant feels abandoned d. Learned traits |
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2. Autonomy vs. doubt
stage of psychosocial development |
a. Occurs around ages 1 to 3
b. Developing motor skills=independence c. Still have to rely on others for some things i. Leads to feelings of doubt Doubt also comes from feelings of lack of self-contro |
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3. Initiative vs. guilt
stage of psychosocial development |
a. Can take initiative to do something, but can also feel guilt
b. Conscience is developing Doubt also comes from feelings of lack of self-control |
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Competence vs. inferiority
stage of psychosocial development |
a. Ages 6 to 12
b. Focus is performance at school c. Competence is the child's applying themselves to learning d. Inferiority occurs if the child achieves skills or status to be inferiority to their skills |
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Baumrind's Parenting Styles
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• Controlling, demanding/low in control, undemanding
• Responsive, child-centered/unresponsive, parent-centered |
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responsive, child centered/controlling, demanding
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authoritative
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responsive, child centered/low in control, undermanding
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permissive-indulgent
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unresponsive, parent-centered/controlling, demanding
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authoritarian
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unresponsive, parent centered/low in control, undermanding
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permissive-indifferent
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What is best option?
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• Authoritative is best option
○ Children are friendly, cheerful, ○ More assertive ○ More helpful, generous Leads to good self-esteem |
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• Authoritarian kids
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○ Tend to be more moody
○ Unhappy children ○ More irritable and fearful ○ Indifferent to new experiences ○ Tend to show lower self-esteem ○ Think that unfriendly aggressive methods will get them what they want |
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Permissive-indulgent
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○ Very impulsive
○ Lack self-control ○ Lack self reliance ○ More aggressive then other kids ○ Dependent kids Tend to be more happy then authoritarian homes |
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1. Rapid growth and weight gain during puberty
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a. Age 11-boys and girls around 60 inches
b. Age 18 i. Girls 64 inches ii. Boys 70 inches |
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2. Development of primary and secondary sex characteristics during puberty
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a. Menstrual period signals first sight of puberty?
i. Not true ii. Average around 11-14 iii. Depends on body fat and nutrition b. First ejaculation i. 12-13 |
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Changes in body composition during puberty
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a. Gain a lot of weight during puberty
b. 38 pounds for girls c. 42 pounds for boys d. Boys get muscle, girls get body fat |
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effect of early maturation on boys
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• Boys
○ Early maturing boys experience advantages ○ More popular, better at sports ○ More mature ○ But, More likely to be involved in delinquency and substance abuse |
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effect of early maturation on girls
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○ Many disadvantages
○ Often feel less attractive ○ Poor self-esteem ○ More uncomfortable in social situations ○ More attention from boys but not a good thing ○ Tend to skip school more and more academic problems ○ Also more likely to use drugs/alcohol |
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adolescent relationships
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• Struggle of independence
• Want more independence |
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• Is there a "generation gap"?
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○ The idea the parents are old fashioned is what though to drive independence
○ Adolescents and their parents have similar views in variety of areas ○ Differences exist over issues of personal taste ○ Most parent/ adolescent relationships characterized by love and respect |
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• Impact of peer pressure
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○ Research suggests that they are affected by social issues
○ Things like choosing a career path are not involved in peer pressure ○ Teens turn to the people that are experts in a given dimension ○ Peer influence peeks around 15 |
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• Importance of role transitions in becoming an adult
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○ Assuming new duties
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• What are role transitions of adulthood?
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○ Finishing school
○ Full time employment ○ Independent household ○ Getting married ○ Becoming a parent |
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Social clock
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the culturally-set timetable that establishes when role transitions are appropriate ○ Best age to get married around averages is 28 for men and 25 for women
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Deciding to Have Children: Reasons
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• Love of children
• Desire to experience pregnancy and childbirth • Demonstrate adult status • Impact of own childhood experiences ○ Coming from happy family-recreate happy experiences ○ Coming from unhappy family-do better than what they experienced • Conform to social expectations • 2004-18% of women are childless ○ Percentage going up • Smaller families more prevalent ○ Get married earlier ○ Children are expensive |
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When does marital satisfaction decline?
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• Marital satisfaction tends to decline after the birth of the first child
○ Stress produced lowest level of marital satisfaction |
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gender differences in marital satisfaction
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○ Women more unhappy because wives tend to have more responsibility
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What couples are more unhappy after first child?
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○ Couples who were least satisfied with marriage before birth
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Ways to increase happiness of couples
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○ More the husband does, happier the marriage is
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1. Early adulthood (20 to 40-45) Levinson's stages
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a. Big decisions: marriage, kids, career
b. Pursuing goals can be stressful |
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2. Middle adulthood (40-45 to 65) levinson's stages
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a. Midlife transition or midlife crisis?
i. When you reassess your goals and prepare for rest of adulthood b. Research i. Midlife itself does not cause crisis ii. More settled and more secure-you can buy a car. c. Happiness in midlife i. One of happier times during life ii. Children independent iii. Financial stability |
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3. Late adulthood (65 and beyond) Levinson's stages
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a. Healthy individuals happier and more satisfied with life
b. More leisure time c. Deliberately focus time on family and friends |
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Activity theory of aging
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• Suggest that the people who are the most happy are those who are fully involved and engaged with the world
• Need to find replacement activities • Criticism ○ The theory doesn't make any discrimination between activities |
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Dying and Death
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• Appears that people are more anxious about death in middle age
• Theory developed by Elizabeth Kubler-Ross • Based on interviews, she suggested that people pass through five stages |
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Elizabeth Kubler-Ross' theory on death
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• Based on interviews, she suggested that people pass through five stages
1. Denial 2. Anger 3. Bargaining 4. Depression 5. Acceptance |
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Kubler-Ross' Theory facts
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• Theory limited to those who are aware they are dying
• Stages are not universal, don't occur in same sequence for everyone • Too few stages? |
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• What account for differences of stages?
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○ Different people act differently
○ How long does dying process last? ○ Cause of death? ○ Person's age ○ Gender ○ Amount of social support that is available • Theory may not be completely accurate |
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Personality defined as
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consistent patterns of thought, feelings, and behavior that originate within the individual
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Four approaches of personality
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○ psychoanalytic
○ Humanistic ○ Social cognitive ○ trait |
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Psychoanalytic approach: Freud
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• One of the most influential thinkers
• Very broad theory • Began as medical doctor, treated hysteria, "talking cure", theory came from observations of patients |
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Three levels of awareness-freud
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conscious, preconscious, unconscious
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Conscious
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thoughts, feelings, sensations your are aware of
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Preconscious
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information you are currently not aware of but can be brought to consciousnessWhat did you have for dinner last night?
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Unconscious mind
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contains repressed or forgotten memories, feelings, and thoughts
○ Can be recalled i.e scrapbooking ○ Dominate part of mind, largest ○ Greatly influences behavior ○ Also affects your dreams ○ Freudian slip |
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Freud's structural mind theory-three parts
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Id, ego, superego
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Id
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• Represents biological drives instincts
• "a cauldron of seething excitement" • Lacks reason, reality, morality • Only cares about biological needs • Pleasure principle • Primary processing ○ Fantasy oriented type thinking |
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Ego
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• Develops to help the id get what it wants it a more appropriate way
• Task is to understand reality and satisfy needs appropriately • Trying to figure out a plan about how to get needs met • Works on reality principle • Uses secondary processing ○ Refers to planning and decision making |
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Superego
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• Conscience
• Internalization of society or parent's rule • Main function is to prohibit • Seeks perfection and ideals • Does not take reality into account • Operates from the morality principle • Example of healthy personality |
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Stage of psychosexual development: Background info.
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• Personality develops in first five years
• One body area is focus of each stage |
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Libido
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○ Libido-energy
○ Free expression of biological impulse vs. parental constraint ○ Frustration or overindulgence leads to problems needs to be transferred to resolve conflict |
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• Fixation of libido
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Part of the energy (libido) remains in previous stage
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Oral stage
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• Birth to age 2
• Focus is on mouth • Sucking movements provide infants with pleasure • Includes sucking and biting/chewing behavior |
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Behaviors associated with fixation at oral stage
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○ May lead to fondness for sweets
○ Smoking ○ Sucking on candy all the time ○ Pencil chewing ○ Sarcasm |
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Anal Stage
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• Age 2-3
• Associated with expelling/retaining feces • Importance of toilet training |
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Behaviors associated with fixation of anal stage
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○ Anal expulsive character-very messy and disorganized
○ Anal retentive character-very neat and organized |
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Phallic Stage
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• Age 4-5
• Origin of Greek names oedipal and electra • Child develops sexual desire for opposite sex parent • Fear of punishment from same-sex parent ○ Boys-castration anxiety ○ Girls-penis envy • Resolution-increased identification with same-sex parent |
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Behaviors associated with fixation at phallic stage
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○ Very promiscuous
○ Very narcissistic |
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Latency Period
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• Not technically a stage
• Sexual drive dormant • Around 6-12 • Energy channeled into school, friendships, sports, hobbies Genital Stage • Begins at puberty • Stage of mature sexual love ○ Feelings of lust ○ Feelings of affection and respect |
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Carl Jung
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• Relationship with Freud
• Collective unconscious ○ Storehouse of ancestral experiences ○ Common experiences that all humans have ○ Contents are called archetypes |
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Shadow-common archetypes
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Devil, angel, on shoulder
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anima- common archetypes
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§ Feminine side of man
§ Causes men to have feminine traits □ Tenderness □ Sentimental |
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animus-common archetypes
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§ Masculine side of women
□ Aggressive □ Competitive □ Independent □ Sense of adventure |
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Karen Horney
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• Comparison to Freud; focused more on social and cultural influences on personality
• Psychological theory written by men relevant to women? • Questioned validity of penis envy ○ Maybe women didn’t want penis, but wanted power • Argued men are jealous of women ○ Women can give birth but men cannot • Womb envy ○ Jealous they can't give birth so are work driven instead ○ Why men treat women with disrespect |
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strengths of psychoanalytic approach
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○ Rich language
○ Vast influence ○ Unconscious ○ Comprehensive |
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weaknesses of psychoanalytic approach
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○ Untestable
○ Sex biased § "women are failed men" ○ Pessimistic § Slaves to instincts |
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Humanistic approach
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• Focus on subjective experience, uniqueness
• Dynamic approach • Optimistic approach Present and future most important |
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Carl Rodgers-Humanistic approach
• Self-actualization-life-long process of realizing potential |
○ "to be that self which one truly is"
○ Process of realizing your potential ○ Focus on present ○ Trust your own instincts more |
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Carl Rodgers-Humanistic approach
• Unconditional positive regard |
○ Your are accepted, respected, for being who you are
○ UPR vs. conditions of worth ○ Conditions of worth-forcing son to play football even though you don't want to |
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Maslow's need hierarchy
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• Human needs vary in their immediacy and power
• Basic needs will be met before others • Five levels of needs Needs are overlapping |
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Five needs of Maslow's hierarchy
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pysiological, safety needs, belongingness and love, esteem, self-actualization needs
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1. Physiological needs
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a. Need to satisfy hunger and thirst
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Safety needs
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a. Need to feel that the world is organized and predictable; need to feel safe, secure, and stable
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3. Belongingness and love needs
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a. Need to love and be loved, to belong and be accepted; need to avoid loneliness and alienation
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Esteem needs
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a. Need for self-esteem, achievement, competence, and independence; need for recognition and respect from others
b. Esteem from others i. Recognition of others c. Self-esteem i. Personal desire for competence or independence ii. Feel capable |
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5. Self-actualization needs
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a. Need to live up to one's fullest and unique potential
b. To become more of what one is c. Not many are focused on these needs |
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strengths of humanistic approach
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○ Optimistic, positive approach
○ We are naturally good people ○ Emphasized uniqueness and validity of subjective experience ○ Emphasis on present and future |
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weaknesses of humanistic approach
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○ Too naïve
○ Too sentimental ○ Doesn't explain darker side of human nature ○ Theory is selfish § Focuses on personal goals, but ignores responsibilities of others ○ Theory is more limited in its scope § Ignores role of unconscious § Ignores role of past |
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Social cognitive approach
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• Combination of behavioral ideas and mental processes
• Bandura's "triadic reciprocal determinism": environment, behavior, and personal/cognitive factors |
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Self-Efficacy
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• Refers to your belief that you can successfully perform a behavior required to achieve a goal
• Actual ability and self-efficacy are often independent |
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• Where does self-efficacy come from?
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○ Performance accomplishments
§ Once you have done something once=more belief you can do it again ○ Vicarious experience § If you watch someone else succeed at a task, especially if you feel like they are similar to you ○ Verbal persuasion § Just being told by other people that you can succeed at something |
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strengths of social cognitive approach
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○ Theory is testable
○ Part of a broader viewpoint |
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weaknesses of social cognitive approach
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○ Not comprehensive
○ Not integrated |
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Trait Approach
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• Suggests that personality is a combination of specific traits
• Goal is explaining individual differences • Traits are relatively stable ○ Doesn't change from childhood to adulthood |
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The "Big Five"
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• Basic structure of personality consists of five factors
• Associated with researcher Costa and McCrae |
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• Openness
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○ High scores
§ Imaginative § Preference for variety § Independent § Excited about new ideas ○ Low scores § Close minded § Conforming |
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• Conscientiousness
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○ High scores
§ Hard-working § Ambitious § Responsible § Organized § Disciplined ○ Low score § Disorganized § Careless § Impulsive |
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• Extraversion
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○ High scores
§ Sociable § Out-going § Fun-loving ○ Low scores § Retiring § Sober § Reserved |
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• Agreeableness
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○ High scores
§ Cooperative § Sympathetic § Friendly § Trusting § Helpful ○ Low scores § Ruthless § Suspicious Uncooperative |
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• Neuroticism
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○ High-scores
§ Anxious § Insecure § Self-pitying § Emotionally unstable ○ Low scores § Calm § Secure § Self-satisfied |
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Behavioral genetics
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• How can we tell if personality is inherited?
• Compare the degree of difference among subjects to their degree of genetic relatedness |
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Family study of behavioral genetics
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a. Children more familiar to parents than others
b. Problem-possible similar to parents because of learning and not genes |
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twin studies of behavioral genetics
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a. Monozygotic vs. dizygotic twins
b. MZ twins are 100% identical c. DZ-two eggs-50% identical-just like any other siblings d. If behavior is inherited, MZ would be more similar to one another e. Problem-MZ twins are often treated the same |
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adoption studies of behavioral studies
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a. An adopted child is more similar to biological parents than adopted parents
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Is personality heritable?
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• Certain traits seem to be heritable
• Personality is 50 percent heritable |
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strengths of trait approach
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○ Focuses on stability of personality
○ Development of objective measures of personality |
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weaknesses of trait approach
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Underestimates the importance of situational factors
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Projectives
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• Method from a psychodynamic approach
• Refers to a standard set of vague stimuli • Client is supposed to project himself onto the stimuli ○ Ink blot-what is it? |
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Rorschach test
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○ Ink blot
○ Developed in 1921 ○ Five in black and white ○ Five in color |
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• TAT
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○ 31 pictures
○ Told to look at picture and create a story ○ Could help underline drive, motive, and conflicts |
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• Strengths of projective tests
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○ Allows clients great freedom in expressing themselves
○ Taps into unconscious ○ Widely used |
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• Weaknesses of projective tests
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○ Poor validity, so-so reliability
○ Expensive, not necessarily better |
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Minnesota multiphasic personality inventory (MMPI-2)
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• Most widely used personality test
• Contains over 500 T/F statements that separate "normal" people from patients with emotional problems • Good at suggesting overall level of disturbance • Has 15 clinical scales and 4 validity scales • Good reliability and validity |
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Social psychology
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• Emphasis is the way other people influence our thoughts, feelings, and behaviors
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Person perception
• Three key components |
1. Characteristics of the person you're perceiving
2. Your own characteristics 3. Context or situation |
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Person perception: Four basic principles
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1. Your reactions to others are determined by your perceptions of them, which is subjective
2. Your goals in a situation determine the kind of information you collect about others 3. You evaluate people partly in terms of how you expect them to act in that situation a. Bio partner-work together, work on it in class, etc. 4. Your self-perception influences how you perceive others and how you act on your perceptions |
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Categorization
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• We group people, characteristics, and behaviors in an immediate and spontaneous manner
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Pros of categorization
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speeds processing time, helps us organize and remember information
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cons of categorization
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we categorize based on superficial things, draw conclusions too easily
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Attributions: Background
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• Attributions are explanations for our own and other's behavior
• We want to make sense out of the world |
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Two different kinds of attribution
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personal, situational
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personal attributions
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a. Behavior caused by internal characteristics
b. Why did she fail test? She is lazy |
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situational attributions
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a. Why did she fail test? Her grandmother died and didn't have to time to study
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attributions determine what?
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our reactions to others and our decision regarding them ○ Would rather share notes with someone who had grandmother die then someone who is lazy
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• Fundamental attribution error
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○ Tendency to overestimate the role of personal causes and to underestimate the role of situational factors when making attributions
○ We like to think that what we say and do reflects our personality |
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• Actor-observer bias
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○ Tendency to use personal attributions to explain other people's behavior, while focusing more on situational attributions when explaining your own behavior
○ If a dog is going to attack me I am going to kick it, if I see someone else kick it I think less of them |
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• Self-serving attributional bias
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○ We take credit for our successes but blame others or the situation for our failures.
○ Why did I get an A on exam? § Because I am smart ○ Why did I get an F on exam? § Because there is a situational explanation ○ Depressed people do not do this § They will often do the opposite |
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Attitudes
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• Refers to an enduring evaluation, positive or negative, of people, objects, and ideas
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ABC Model of attitudes
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○ Affect
§ Feelings or emotions about attitude ○ Behavioral component § Actions towards situation ○ Cognitive component § Thoughts about attitude object |
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• Behavior is controlled by other factors besides attitude such as...
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○ Reinforcements
§ Convenience of fast food trumps bad attitude toward fast food ○ Other things more important trumps attitudes |
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Major assumption of cognitive dissonance
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○ There's a pressure toward consistency between attitude and behavior
○ Dissonance occurs when the two are inconsistent ○ Dissonance=tension, feel pressure to reduce it ○ Example § Boy is liberal, girlfriend is in young republicans club, boy joins club, changes attitude about republicans |
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• Exception for external justification
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○ I will give you a million dollars if you don't recycle
○ Attitude is not changed but everyone wants a million dollars |
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• Festinger and Carlsmith study
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○ Student did a very boring task-moving boxes from one side of room to another
○ Then told them to tell next test subject that study is very interesting ○ Would get 20 dollars if they lied to next test subject ○ Called into lab the next week ○ People who were paid 1 dollar felt tension ○ People who were paid 20 dollars felt like they got something out of the study |
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• Zimbardo experiment
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○ People ate grasshopper
○ One experimenter was very nice while the other was mean ○ The test subject with the mean experimenter changed attitude |
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Influences on attitude change
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• Expertise on the persuader
• Likability of the persuader ○ Physical attractiveness ○ Similarity • Frequency of communication |
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Prejudice (affective component)
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a hostile or negative feeling ○ Negative feeling toward stay at home moms
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Stereotype (cognitive component)
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a generalization about a group of people ○ All stay at home moms are all the same
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Discrimination (behavioral component)
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an unjustified negative or harmful action toward a member of a group ○ All blondes can only get a B in the class because they are not that smart
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Causes of prejudice
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• Social categorization
• Effects of in-group and out-group ○ In-group bias or favoritism ○ Negative feelings for people of out group ○ Out-group homogeneity § People in out-group are all the same • Self-fulfilling prophecies |
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Prenatal stage: Three distinct phases
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• The germinal period
• The embryonic period • The fetal period |
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Germinal period
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• First two weeks of prenatal development
• Zygote undergoes rapid cell division • By the end of period, zygote developed into cluster of cells called embryo |
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Embryonic period
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• Begins with week 3 and ends with week 8
• Organs and major systems of the body form • Greatest vulnerability to teratogens |
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• Teratogens
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○ Harmful agents or substances that can cause abnormal development or birth defects
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• Fetal alcohol syndrome
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○ Characterized by physical and mental problems
○ No safe level of alcohol during fetal development ○ Greatest risk is during first trimester of prenatal period |
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Prenatal brain development
Neural tube |
sheet of curled neural cells ○ Eventually becomes three main regions of brain
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Prenatal brain development • Stems cells
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○ Line neural tube
○ Cells can divide indefinitely, renew themselves, and give rise to a varity of other types of cells. |
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Fetal Period
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• The final and longest stage of prenatal development that begins at the third month
• Preparation for living outside of womb • Connections in brain are made • Baby gains weight |
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Fetal Period • Quickening
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○ Occurs at fourth month
○ Can feel the fetus moving |
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Language development
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• At birth, infacts can distinguish amoung the speech sounds of all the world's languages
○ Lose this ability by 10-12 months ○ Start to master sound structure of native language |
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• Motherese/ parentese/ infant-directed speech
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○ Characterized by very distinct pronunciation, simplified vocab, short sentences, high pitch, and exaggerated intonation and expression.
○ Use of language seems to be instinctive |
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The Cooing and Babbling Stage of Language development
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• Sequence of language development seems to be universal
• 3 months of age ○ Infants begin to "coo" • 5 months of age ○ Infants begin to "babble" ○ Not specific to language • 9 months of age ○ Begin to babble more in the sounds specific to their language |
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The one word stage of development
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• Comprehension vocab is great than production vocab
○ Can understand "bring daddy the block" but cannot speak • Use a single word and vocal intonation to stand for an entire sentence |
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The two word stage of development
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• Around second-birthday toddlers begin putting words together
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• Pruning-
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○ Survival of the fittest among neurons
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• As the brain matures, neuronal connections are pruned and gray matter diminished in a back-to-front wave
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○ White matter increases
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• Last part of brain experience pruning an maturity is the prefrontal cortex
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○ Plays an important role in cognitive functions, such as a person's ability to reason
○ Explains that this part is not fully developed |
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• Infancy psychosocial conflict
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○ Trust vs. mistrust
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• Toddler psychosocial conflict
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○ Autonomy vs. doubt
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• Early childhood psychosocial conflict
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○ Initiative vs. guilt
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• Middle and late childhood psychosocial conflict
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○ Industry vs. inferiority
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• Adolescence psychosocial conflict
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○ Identity vs. role confusion
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• Young adulthood psychosocial conflict
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○ Intimacy vs. isolation
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• Middle adulthood psychosocial conflict
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○ Generatively vs. stagnation
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• Late adulthood psychosocial conflict
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○ Ego integrity vs. despair
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• Moral reasoning
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○ How an individual thinks about moral and ethical decisions
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• Lawrence Kohlberg
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○ Used hypothetical moral dilemmas to investigate moral reasoning, such as whether a husband should steal a drug
○ Proposed three different levels of reasoning |
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• Three levels of Kohlberg
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○ Preconventional
○ Conventional ○ postconventional |
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• Preconventional
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○ Moral reasoning based on self interest
○ Children under the age of 10 ○ Avoiding punishment and maximizing personal gain |
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• Conventional
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○ Emphasizes social roles, rules, and obligations
○ Late childhood and adolescence/adulthood |
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• Postconventional
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○ Not all people get to this stage
○ Emphasizes respect for legal principles that protect all members of society |
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• Criticism of Kohlberg's theory
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○ Moral reasoning doesn't always predict moral behavior
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Gender Culture and Moral Reasoning
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• Only slight difference between male and female responses
• Culture influences reasoning |
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Variations in the paths of adult social development
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• Many different types of relationships
• Any relationship that promotes the overall sense of happiness and well-being of the people involved is a successful one |
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Careers in adulthood
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• Studies have found that a third of people in their late 20s and early 30s do not just change jobs within a particular field but completely switch occupational fields
• Social and economic circumstances can also affect occupational choices Dual-career families have become more common |
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• Ego defense mechanisms
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○ May temporarily reduce anxiety by distorting thoughts
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• Repression
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○ Unconscious forgetting
○ Anxiety producing thoughts, feelings, or impulses are pushed out of conscious awareness into the unconscious |
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Displacement
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○ Occurs when emotional impulses are redirected to a substitute object or person, usually one less threatening or dangerous than the original source of conflict
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• Sublimation
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○ Largely responsible for the productive and creative contributions of people and even of whole societies
○ A form of displacement in which sexual urges are rechanneled into productive, nonsexual activates |
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• Rationalization
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○ Justifying one's actions or feelings with socially acceptable explanations rather than consciously acknowleding one's true motives or desires
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• Reaction formation
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○ Thinking or behavior in a way that is the extreme opposite of unacceptable urges or impulses
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• Denial
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○ The failure to recognize or acknowledge the existnce of anxiety-provoking information
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• Undoing
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○ A form of unconscious repentance that involves neutralizing or atoning for an unacceptable action or thought with a second action or though
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• Regression
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○ Retreating to a behavior pattern characteristic of an earlier stage of development
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Alfred Adler
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• Placed much more emphasis on the importance of conscious though processes and social motives
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• What did Adler believe was the most fundamental human motive?
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○ Striving for superiority
○ The desire to improve oneself, master challenges, and move toward self-perfection and self-realization |
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• Striving toward superiority arises from
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○ Feelings of inferiority that are experienced during childhood
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• Inferiority complex
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○ A general sense of inadequacy, weakness, and helplessness
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• Superiority complex
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○ Overcompensate for feelings of inferiority
○ Behaviors caused by a superiority complex might include exaggerating one's accomplishment in importance in an effort to cover up weaknesses |
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• Raymond Cattell
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○ 171 characteristics
○ Used factor analysis § Identify the traits that were most closely related to one another Developed sixteen personality factor questionnaire |
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Hans Eysenck
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3 dimensions
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○ First dimension of Eysenck
Introversion-extroversion |
□ Degree to which a person direct energies outward toward the environment
□ High introversion=quiet □ High extroversion=out going |
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○ Second dimension of Eysenck
§ Neuroticism-emotional stability |
□ High neuroticism=anxiety, depression, tension, and guilt
□ Emotion stability=associated with surface traits of being calm, relaxed, and even-tempered |
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○ Third dimension of Eysenck
§ Psychoticism |
□ High on trait=antisocial, cold, hostile, and concerned about others
□ Low on trait=caring about others |
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• Extraversion associated with?
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○ Larger brain tissue volume n the medial orbitofrontal cortex, a brain region that is associated with sensitivity to rewarding stimuli
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Agreeableness associated with?
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○ Associated with increase volume in the posterior cingulate cortex, a brain region associated with undertanding the belief of others
○ Also associated with greater volume in the fusiform gyrus |
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• Conscientiousness associated with?
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Large region of the frontal cortex called the middle frontal gyrus, which is known to be involved in planning, working memory, and self-regulatio
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• Neuroticism associated with?
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○ Mixed pattern of brain structure differences
○ Reduced volume in one are of the hippocampus |
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Today's researches are aware that?
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○ Both brain differences and personality traits are shaped by the complex interaction of environmental, genetic and biological influence.
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Graphology
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• Claims that our handwriting reveals your temperament, personality traits, intelligence, and reasoning ability
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Enhancing well-being with psychology
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• Possible selves
○ Highly personalized, vivid, futuristic images of the self that reflect hopes, fears, and fantasies ○ Self-efficacy beliefs are closely connected to the idea of possible selves ○ Visualize you can do something and more likely be able to do it |
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• Most likely to behave in accordance with your attitudes when
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○ Anticipate a favorable outcome or response from that behavior
○ Attitudes are extreme or are frequently expresses ○ Attitudes have been formed through direct experience ○ Very knowledgeable about the subject ○ Have a vested interest in the subject and personally stand to gain or lose something on a specific issue |
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Implicit attitudes
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• Evaluations that are automatic, unintentional, and difficult to control
• Sometimes but not always unconscious |
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Most common way to measure and detect implicit attitudes?
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• Implicit association test
• Computer test that measures the degree to which you associate particular groups of people with specific characteristics or attributes |
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The Robbers Cave experiment
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• Boys split up into groups, rivalry formed
• Came back together but there was still a rivalry • To decrease hostility, need to cooperate to achieve a common goal • No intrinsic differences between the boys |
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Factors influencing conformity
• Normative social influence |
○ Desire to be liked and accepted by the group
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Factors influencing conformity
• Information social influence |
○ When we are uncertain or doubt our own judgment, we may look to the group as a source of accurate information
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Factors influencing conformity • Conformity decreases under certain circumstances
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○ Subjects more likely to go against majority view if one other person agreed
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Deindividuation
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• Refers to the reduction of self-awareness and inhibitions that can occur when a person is part of a group whose members feel anonymous
A feeling of self-awareness is important in deindividuation |
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• Persuasion
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○ The deliberate attempt to influence the attitudes or behavior of another person in a situation in which that person has some freedom of choice
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• The rule of reciprocity
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○ If someone does you a favor, you are more likely to return the favor
○ Door-in-the-face-technique-"can I borrow 500 dollars?"-No "Can I borrow 20?"-sure ○ That's not all technique-throws another thing on the deal |
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• The rule of commitment
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○ Once you make a commitment, there is psychological and interpersonal pressure on you to behave consistently with your earlier commitment
○ Foot-in-the-door-technique-makes a small commitment, and then asked for a bigger commitment that can't be turned down ○ Low-ball-technique-persuader gets you to make a commitment by deliberately understating the cost of the product you want |
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• Defending about persuasion techniques
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1. Sleep on it
2. Play devil's advocate a. List reasons to not buy something 3. When in doubt, do nothing a. Trust gut feelings |
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Reducing Prejudice
• Contact hypothesis |
○ Direct intergroup contract might reduce prejudice
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• Does mere contact work?
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○ Putting in same area doesn't help
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• Conditions where contact may work better
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○ Groups have common goal
○ There is equal status between the groups |
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• Jigsaw technique
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○ Utilized idea of contact
○ Small dependent groups ○ Children are reliant on other children to do well ○ Doing a biography report § Split up into parts § Learn from other four kids ○ Children see decrease in prejudice and stereotypes |
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Conformity
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• Refers to a change in behavior due to the real or imagined influence of other people
• Tendency to become more consistent with group standards |
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• Asch Study example of conformity
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○ Subjects task to pick line out of group
○ Confederates gave wrong answer ○ Will subject give right or wrong answer? Subject gave answer 35% that they knew was incorrect |
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Factors that influence conformity
Group size |
larger the group=more conformity
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• Group unanimity
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○ More likely to agree if everyone agrees
○ During study-if one person agreed to right answer-conformity dropped from 35 to 6 percent |
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• Commitment to the group
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○ Both positive and negative forces that keep you in a relationship
○ Less willing to go along with group now, but people will still tend to conform |
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• How to resist conformity?
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○ Very hard to resist because there is a chance that you are not liked by group
○ Find one ally |
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Obedience
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• Refers to situations when an authority specifically commands us to change our behavior
• Interest increased after WW II |
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Milgram Study
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• Conducted at Yale in 1961
• Participants answer ad in paper to participate in study of learning • All men that were paid $4.50 • "Teacher" and "learner"; subject always "teacher" • "Learner" was a confederate • Shock generator • Teacher watched learner be hooked up to shock generator • Teacher also received shock to see what it felt like • Had to memorize pairs of words • Confederate was actually not receiving shocks • Would teacher stop shocking when the confederate acted that they were in pain • 65% of subjects went all the way to the end |
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Milgram study explanations
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• Subjects' expectations
○ It is my job to follow the directions • Situation led to subject trusting experimenter ○ Experimenter looked legit • Shocks escalated gradually • Experimenter reassured subject ○ Saying it is okay to shock person • Subject believed experimenter ultimately responsible for what happened |
