Psych/ch. 5-7

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Learning

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a relatively permanent change in behavior acquired through experience

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classical conditioning

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the process of learning by which a previously neutral stimulus comes to elicit a response identical or similar to one that was originally elicited by another stimulus as the result of the pairing or association of the two stimuli
-Pavlov
-learning by association
*example- drill from a dentist makes your body tense up because of fear

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unconditioned response (UR)

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an unlearned response to a stimulus

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unconditioned stimulus (US)

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a stimulus that elicits an unlearned response

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neutral stimulus (NS)

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a stimulus that before conditioning does not produce a particular response

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conditioned response (CR)

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an acquired or learned response to a conditioned stimulus

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conditioned stimulus (CS)

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a previously neutral stimulus that comes to elicit a conditioned response after it has been paired with an unconditioned stimulus

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extinction

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the gradual weakening and eventual disappearance of a conditioned response

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spontaneous recovery

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the spontaneous return of a conditioned response following extinction

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reconditioning

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the process of relearning a conditioned response following extinction

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stimulus generalization

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the tendency for stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit a conditioned response

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stimulus discrimination

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the tendency to differentiate among stimuli so that stimuli that are related tot he original conditioned stimulus, but not identical to it, fail to elicit a conditioned response.

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conditioned emotional reaction (CER)

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an emotional response to a particular stimulus acquired through classical conditioning

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phobias

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excessive fears of particular objects or situations

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behavior therapy

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a form of therapy that involves the systematic application of the principles of learning

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conditioned taste aversions

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aversions to particular tastes acquired through classical conditioning

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immune system

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the body's system of defense against disease

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law of effect

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Thorndike's principle that responses that have satisfying effects are more likely to recur, whereas those that have unpleasant effects are less likely to recur

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radical behaviorism

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the philosophical position that free will is an illusion or myth and that human and animals behavior is completely determined by environmental and genetic influences

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Skinner box

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an experimental apparatus developed by B. F. Skinner for studying relationships between reinforcement and behavior

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operant conditioning

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the process of learning in which the consequences of a response determine the probability that the response will be repeated

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operant response

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a response that operates on the environment to produce certain consequences

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reinforcer

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a stimulus or event that increases the probability that the response it follows will be repeated

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superstitious behavior

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in Skinner's view, behavior acquired through coincidental association of response and reinforcement

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positive reinforcement

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the strengthening of a response through the introduction of a stimulus after the response occurs

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negative reinforcement

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the strengthening of a response through the removal of a stimulus after the response occurs

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primary reinforcers

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Reinforcers, such as food or sexual stimulation, that are naturally rewarding because they satisfy basic biological needs or drives

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secondary reinforcers

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learned reinforcers, such as money that develop their reinforcing properties because of their association with primary reinforcers

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discriminative stimulus

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a cue that signals that reinforcement is available if the subject makes particular response

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shaping

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a process of learning that involves the reinforcement of increasingly closer approximations of the desired response

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schedules of reinforcement

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predetermined plans for timing the delivery of reinforcement

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schedule of continuous reinforcement

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a system of dispensing a reinforcement each time a response is produced

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schedule of partial reinforcement

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a system of reinforcement in which only a portion of responses is reinforced

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escape learning

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the learning of behaviors that allow an organism to avoid an aversive stimulus

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avoidance learning

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the learning of behaviors that allow an organism to avoid an aversive stimulus

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punishment

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the introduction of an aversive stimulus or the removal of a reinforcing stimulus after a response occurs, which leads to the weakening or suppression of the response

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behavior modification (B-mod)

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the systematic application of learning principles to strengthen adaptive behavior and weaken maladaptive behavior

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token economy program

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a form of behavior modification in which tokens earned for performing desired behaviors can be exchanged for positive reinforcers

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programmed instruction

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a learning method in which complex material is broken down into a series of small steps that learners master at their own place

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computer-assisted instruction

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a form of programmed instruction in which a computer is used to guide a student through a series of increasingly difficult questions

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cognitive learning

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learning that occurs without the opportunity of first performing the learned response or being reinforced for it

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insight learning

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the process of mentally working through a problem until the sudden realization of a solution occurs

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latent learning

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learning that occurs without apparent reinforcement and that is not displayed until reinforcement is provided

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cognitive map

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a mental representation of an area that helps an organism navigate its way from one point to another

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observational learning

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learning by observing and imitating the behavior of others (also called vicarious learning or modeling)

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memory

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the system that allows us to retain information and bring it mind

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memory encoding

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the process of converting information into a form that can be stored in memory

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memory storage

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the precess of retaining information memory

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memory retrieval

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the process of accessing and bringing into consciousness information stored in memory

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retrieval cues

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cues associated with the original learning that facilitate the retrieval of memories

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three-stage model

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a model of memory that posits three distinct stage of memory: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory

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sensory memory

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the storage system that holds memory of sensory impressions for a very short time

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sensory register

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a temporary storage device for holding sensory memories

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iconic memory

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a sensory store for holding a mental representation of visual image for a fraction of a second

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eidetic imagery

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a lingering mental representation of visual image (commonly called photographic memory)

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echoic memory

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a sensory store for holding a mental representation of a sound for a few seconds after it registers in the ears

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short-term memory (STM)

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the memory sub-system that allows for retention and processing of newly acquire information for a maximum of about 30 seconds (also called working memory)

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Chunking

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the process of enhancing retention of a large amount of information by breaking it down into smaller, more easily recalled chunks

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maintenance rehearsal

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the precess of extending retention of information held in short-term memory by consciously repeating the information

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long-term memory (LTM)

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the memory subsystem responsible for long-term storage of information

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consolidation

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the precess of converting short-term memories into long-term memories

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elaborative rehearsal

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the process of transfer-ring information from short-term to long-term memory by consciously focusing on the meaning of information

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semantic network model

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a representation of the organizational structure of ling-term memory in terms of a network of associated concepts

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levels-of-processing theory

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the belief that how well or how ling information is remembered depends on the depth of encoding or processing

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declarative memory

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memory of facts and personal information that requires a conscious effort to bring to mind (also called explicit memory)

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semantic memory

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memory of facts and general information about the world

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episodic memory

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memory of personal experiences

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retrospective memory

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a memory of pas experiences or events and previously acquired information

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prospective memory

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memory of things one plans to do in the future

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procedural memory

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memory of how to do things that require motor or performance skills

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implicit memory

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memory accessed through conscious effort

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explicit effort

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memory accessed through conscious effort

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constructionist theory

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a theory that holds that memory is not a replica of the past but a representation, or a reconstruction, of the past

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flashbulb memories

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enduring memories of emotionally charged events that seem permanently seared into the brain

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misinformation effect

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a form of memory distortion that affects eyewitness testimony and that is cased by misinformation provided during the retention interval

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decay theory

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a theory of forgetting that posits that memories consist of traces laid down in the brain that gradually deteriorate and fade away over time (also called trace theory)

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savings method

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a method of testing memory retention by comparing the numbers of trials needed to learn material with the number of trials needed to relearn the material at a later time

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massed vs. spaced practice effort

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the tendency for retention of learned material to be greater with spaced practice than with massed practice

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interference theory

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the belief that forgetting is the result of the interference of memories with each other

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retroactive interference

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a form of interference in which newly acquired information interferes with retention of material learned earlier

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proactive interference

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a form of interference in which material learned earlier interferes with retention of newly acquired information

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overlearning

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practice repeated beyond the point necessary to reproduce material without error

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serial position effect

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the tendency to recall items at the stat or end or a list better than items in the middle of a list

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primacy effect

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the tendency to recall items better when they are learned first

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recency effect

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the tendency to recall items better when they are learned last

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retrieval theory

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the belief that forgetting is the result of a failure to access stored memories

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tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) phenomenon

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an experience in which people are sure they know something but can't seem to bring it to mind

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repression

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in Freudian Theory, a type of defense mechanism involving motivated forgetting of anxiety-evoking material

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free recall

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a type of recall task in which individuals are asked to recall as many stored items as possible in any order

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recognition task

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a method of measuring memory retention that assesses the ability to select the correct answer from among a range of past events

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amnesia

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loss of memory

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retrograde amnesia

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loss of memory of past events

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anterograde amnesia

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loss or impairment of the ability to form or store new memories

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dissociative amnesia

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a psychologically based form of amnesia involving the "splitting off" from memory or traumatic or troubling experiences

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engram

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Lashley's term for the physical trace or etching of a memory in the brain

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neuronal networks

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memory circuits in the brain that consist of complicated networks of nerve cells

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long-term potentiation (LTP)

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the long-term strengthening of neural connections as the result of repeated stimulation

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mnemonic

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a device for improving memory

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acronym

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a word composed of the first letters of a series of words

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acrostic

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a verse or saying in which the first or last letter of each word stands for something else

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cognitive psychology

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the branch of psychology that focuses on such mental processes as thinking, problem solving, decision making, and use of language

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thinking

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the process of mentally representing and manipulating information

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mental image

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a mental picture or representation of an object or event

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concepts

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mental categories for classifying events, objects, and ideas on the basis of their common features or properties

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logical concepts

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concepts with clearly defined rules for membership

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natural concepts

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concepts with poorly defined or fuzzy rules for membership

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problem solving

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a form of thinking focused on finding a solution to a particular problem

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algorithm

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a step-by-step set of rules that will always lead to a correct solution to a problem

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heuristic

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a rule of thumb for solving problems or making judgments or decisions

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mental set

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the tendency to rely on strategies that worked in similar situations in the past but that may not be appropriate to the present situation

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functional fixedness

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the tendency to perceive objects as limited to the customary functions they serve

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decision making

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a form of problem solving in which we must select a course of action from among the available alternatives

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confirmation bias

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the tendency to maintain allegiance to an initial hypothesis despite strong evidence to the contrary

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representativeness heuristic

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a rule of thumb for making a judgment that assumes a given sample is representative of the larger population form which it is drawn

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availability heuristic

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the tendency to judge events as more likely to occur when information pertaining to them comes readily to mind

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creativity

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originality of thought associated with the development of new, workable products or solutions to problems

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divergent thinking

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the ability to conceive of new ways of viewing situations and new uses for familiar objects

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convergent thinking

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the attempt to narrow down a range of alternatives to converge on the one correct answer to a problem

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conceptual combinations

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combinations of two or more concepts into one concept, resulting in the creation of novel idea or application

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conceptual expansion

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expanding familiar concepts by applying them to new uses

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language

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a system of communication composed of symbols (words, hand signs, etc) that are arranged according to a set of rules (grammar) to form meaningful expressions

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grammar

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the set of rules governing how symbols in a given language are sued to form meaningful expressions

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phonemes

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the basic units of sound in a language

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morphemes

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the smallest unit of meaning in a language

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syntax

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the rules of grammar that determine how words are ordered within sentences or phrases to from meaningful expressions

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semantics

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the set of rules governing the meaningful words

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language acquisition device

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Chomsky's concept of an innate, prewired mechanism in the brain that allows children to acquire language naturally

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linguistic relativity hypothesis

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the proposition that the language we use determines how we think and how we perceive the world (also called the Whorfian hypothesis)

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intelligence

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the capacity to think and reason clearly and to act purposefully and effectively in adapting to the environment and pursuing one's goals

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mental age

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a representation of a person's intelligence based on the age of people who are capable of performing at the same level of ability

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intelligence quotient (IQ)

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a measure of intelligence based on performance on tests of mental abilities, expressed as a ratio between one's mental age and chronological age or derived from the deviation of one's scores from the norms for those of one's age group

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norms

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the standards used to compare an individual's performance on a test with the performance of others

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standardization

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the process of establishing norms for a test by administering the test to large numbers of people who constitute a standardization sample

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reliability

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the stability of test scores over time

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validity

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the degree to which a test measures what it purports to measure

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culture-fair tests

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tests designed to eliminate cultural biases

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dyslexia

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a learning disorder characterized by impaired ability to read

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mental retardation

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a generalized deficit or impairment in intellectual and social skills

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mainstreaming

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the practice of placing children with special needs n a regular classroom environment

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primary mental abilities

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seven basic mental abilities that Thurstone believed constitute intelligence

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multiple intelligence

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Gardner's term for the distinct types of intelligence that characterize different forms of intelligent behavior

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triarchic theory of intelligence

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Sternberg's theory of intelligence that posits three aspects of intelligence: analytic, creative, and practical

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heritability

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the degree to which heredity accounts for variations on a given train within a population

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Who studied STM?

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George Miller

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Magic 7

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-Miller talks about how humans can't seem to remember over 6-7 syllable words
-7 dwarves

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retrieval cues

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jogging your mind to class yesterday and bringing to mind where you sat

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mnemonic

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H.O.M.E.S. for the Great Lakes

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World Wide Web

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Tim Berners

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Rule of Thumb Strategy

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Heuristics

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Phase One:
Before Conditioning

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a) Unconditioned Stimulus (US): food in mouth-->Unconditioned Response(UR): salivation
b) Neutral Stimulus (NS): none--> no salivation

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Phase Two:
After Conditioning

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a) Neutral Stimulus (NS): tone + Unconditioned Stimulus (US): food in mouth--> Unconditioned Response (UR): salivation
b) Conditioned Stimulus (CS): tone--> Conditioned Response (CR): salivation

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Example of stimulus generalization and discrimination

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Conditioned Stimulus: black dog
Conditioned Response: Child displays fear
Stimulus Generalization: the child cringes when a small, black dog appears

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Law of Effect Explained

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first part is called reinforcement and second part is called punishment
- satisfying effects are more likely to occur
- responses that lead to discomfort are weakened and become less likely to occur