Psych 371 Chapter 8

Front 1

Describe Thorndike's work with observational learning in animals. (pp. 265-266)

Back 1

Had inexperienced cat watch experienced cat get out of puzzle box. No matter how many times one cat watched another, it seemed to learn nothing: could not learn to open box any faster.

Front 2

Define vicarious learning.

Back 2

A change in behaviour due to the experience of observing a model. Also called observational learning.

Front 3

Be able to cite and recognize original examples of vicarious learning (pp. 266-267)

Back 3

Dog watches another dog being conditioned to salivate at sound of a bell. If observing dog also salivates, it has learned by observation. Aversives: dog touched by handler, then shocked, may cringe when handler reaches for it. If another dog observes and cringes when handler reaches, vicarious learning has occurred. Can also happen with operant training. Monkey watching monkey get raising from under cup may lift cup when given the chance. Watching other monkey punished when reaching for raisin, if the observer declines to reach, vicarious learning has occurred.

Front 4

What is vicarious Pavlovian conditioning?

Back 4

Having one organism watch the Pavlovian conditioning of another, and then watching to see if it develops the same CS.

Front 5

What does the author conclude about its existence?

Back 5

Doubtful, at best. Though observing a model may be involved, the Mickey Mouse study's demonstrate classical conditioning, not vicarious conditioning. When children shown another child playing with mickey mouse, if the other kid was happy, the observer would develop a liking for Mickey, and vice versa.

Front 6

Describe Mineka and Cook's work in fear conditioning, identifying the NS, CS, US, UR, and CR. (pp. 267-271)

Back 6

NS - 6 young, captive born monkeys watching their wild-reared parents react fearfully to snakes, the kids became fearful of snakes. NS/CS youngster fear reaction. US - parent fear reaction to snake CR/UR youngster fear reaction to snakes

Front 7

Describe the work of Warden and his colleagues in the vicarious operant learning of animals. (pp. 271-272)

Back 7

Contrasts Thordike's observations. Had monkey watch another monkey pull a chain to open a door revealing a raisin. Observer then given 60 seconds to solve problem (before being removed for 30 seconds before 2nd trial. Why?) Most solved correctly on first trial. 47% withing 10 seconds. 75% within 30 seconds. Also observed topography of behavior: failures were usually not pulling hard enough on the chain or manipulating it in the wrong way. Even failure showed they had learned something.

Front 8

What is vicarious operant leaning?

Back 8

Observer looks on as another animal or person interacts with the environment. It is learning if the behaviour of the observer changes.

Front 9

My addition: Herbert and Harsh cat study

Back 9

Box with 4 observer slots, one model room, had to turn a table to get food. Took models average of 62 seconds. Cats that observed for 15 trials could solve in average of 57 seconds. Cats that observed for 30 trials could solve in average of 16 seconds.

Front 10

Be able to provide and recognize original examples of the following types of vicarious operant learning:

Back 10

Vicarious avoidance learning, vicarious reinforcement, vicarious punishment, vicarious accidental reinforcement (ie. Imitation of superstitious behaviour).

Front 11

Be able to provide and recognize original examples of the following types of vicarious operant learning: (a) vicarious avoidance learning,

Back 11

Presley and Riopelle: monkeys shown a light, then shocked through floor. Could escape or avoid by jumping hurdle to other half of the box. Observer monkey watched until model avoided the chock on 28 of 30 trials. Then observer had a turn. Slowest learning observer did as well as the fasting learning model. E Roy John and co did basically the same thing with cats.

Front 12

Be able to provide and recognize original examples of the following types of vicarious operant learning: (b) vicarious reinforcement,

Back 12

In a foul and evil studyBandura and McDonald had children decide who was naughtier: John who brok 15 cups while answering his mother's call to dinner, or Henry, who broke 1 while stealing cookies. Tried to teach subjective children to use objective approach. BAD!! 2 conditions: child/adult female model took turns evaluating stories. Model always used objective approach, experiment approved those judgements, as well as the objective judgments of the child. Second: no model, but experiementer approved child's objective choices. Retested the children again: reinforcement of a model added substantially to effects of direct reinforcement.

Front 13

Be able to provide and recognize original examples of the following types of vicarious operant learning: (c) vicarious punishment, and

Back 13

Rosenkrans and Hartup: model hit inflated doll on head with a mallet and poked clay figure with fork, saying "wham, bam, I'll knock your head off." Two conditions: First, adult observer praised her, in another, model's behaviour was criticized. Children who saw aggression reinforced played aggressively, and vice versa. Ellen Levy: picture preference. Model shown picture pairs, asked which they preferred. Result was approval, disapproval, or neutral consequence. Then, observer children indicated their preferences. Children were influenced by the consequences for the model's choices.

Front 14

Be able to provide and recognize original examples of the following types of vicarious operant learning: (d) vicarious accidental reinforcement (i.e., imitation of superstitious behavior). (pp. 271-277)

Back 14

Higgins: showed a video of a model pressing a doll's nose and receiving marbles, but reinforcement was accidental. Observers repeatedly imitated this behavior even though the marbles received were not contingent on the behaviour.

Front 15

Comment on vicarious reinforcement/punishment

Back 15

Comment: Vicarious reinforcement and vicarious punishment are types of vicarious learning procedures. In vicarious reinforcement, observing a model's behavior be rewarded increases the likelihood that the observer will engage in the modeled behavior. In vicarious punishment, observing a model's behavior be punished decreases the likelihood that the observer will engage in the modeled behavior. You can read examples of vicarious reinforcement and punishment in the description of the Rosekrans and Hartup (1967) study on pages 276-277. Also see Figure 8-8, which illustrates vicarious reinforcement and punishment.

Front 16

Provide and recognize original examples illustrating instances in which failure of imitation to occur does not mean that vicarious learning has not occurred. (p. 279)

Back 16

John and Anne are invited to take a treat from one of two bowls. One has rock hard taffy, one has delicious fudge. They don't know which is which. John chooses one, and gets taffy. Anne does not choose that bowl, which demonstrates that she has learned, though she is not imitating. Thus, vicarious learning and imitation are not synonomous.

Front 17

What is generalized imitation?

Back 17

The tendency to imitate modeled behaviour even when imitation of the behaviour is not reinforced. Another definition: "tendency to imitate modeled successful behaviour"

Front 18

Be able to provide and recognize examples of generalized imitation.

Back 18

Fiorito and Scotto: octopi training to attack either red or white ball by attaching food to the intended target. Then, observer octopus watches while trained octopus attacks target ball (red) instead of white, but no reinforcement provided to either octopus. Then, observer given chance to attack: out of 150 trials, animals that observed models attack the red ball did likewise on 129 trials, attacking white ball only 13 times. Why?

Front 19

Describe Baer and Sherman's (1964) study of generalized imitation. (pp. 280-281)

Back 19

Used a puppet to model four actions: mouthing, head nodding, speaking nonsense, and pressing a lever. ABA patter: reinforced the first three, but not lever pressing. All behaviours, including lever pressing, increased. Stopped reinforcing first three behaviours, all declined. Reinforced again, all behaviours increased. Conclusion: possible to reinforce generalized imitation, or a general tendency to imitate.

Front 20

Comment on generalized imitative repertoires

Back 20

Comment: As children, we acquire a generalized imitative repertoire, which consists of the ability to imitate all kinds of novel acts without reinforcement for each instance of imitation. This generalized imitation ability is very important in allowing children to expand their range of abilities. Simply observing a behavior can lead to acquiring that behavior. As the author emphasizes, there is a dark side to this ability, because both appropriate and inappropriate behaviors (e.g. drug use and aggression) can be acquired. This problem is compounded by the high frequency of negative behaviors in the media.

Front 21

Cite and describe how each of the following conditions influence vicarious learning:

Back 21

Consequences of the model's behaviour, consequences of the observer's behaviour, characteristics of the model, observer's age, observer's learning history, emotional state of observer, modeled task complexity

Front 22

Cite and describe how each of the following conditions influence vicarious learning: (a) consequences of the model's behavior,

Back 22

When consistency (contingency) of consequences increases, observer more likely to adopt it. Rosekrans and Hartup's study of aggression shows this. Agression reinforced consistently produced lots of aggressive imitation, consistently punished produced little aggressive imitation, and when aggression was sometimes reinforced, it produced the least imitation.

Front 23

Cite and describe how each of the following conditions influence vicarious learning: (b) consequences of the observer's behavior,

Back 23

If observing pays off, likely to spend more time observing. Hirata and Morimura: chimps who failed to solve problem with tool would watch partner. Chimps who succeeded would never watch partner. If consequences are different for observer than model, observation and imitation likely to decrease. E.g. guy watching me court my wife may try to imitate and fail, so will not likely continue trying to imitate.

Front 24

Cite and describe how each of the following conditions influence vicarious learning: (c) characteristics of the model,

Back 24

Human observers tend to learn more from models who are competent, attractive, likable, and prestigious. Eg. Berger had students "learn" extra-sensory perception from "fellow student" or "asistant to professor" students learned more from supposed assistant.

Front 25

Cite and describe how each of the following conditions influence vicarious learning: (d) the observer's age,

Back 25

Young monkeys more likely o imitate a model than older monkeys (Adams-Curtis & Fragaszy). Young children are more likely to imitate, but amount of learning through observation goes up with age (until fogey-hood)

Front 26

Cite and describe how each of the following conditions influence vicarious learning: (e) the observer's learning history,

Back 26

Child whose aggressive behaviour has been reinforced often is more likely to imitate aggression.

Front 27

Cite and describe how each of the following conditions influence vicarious learning: (f) the emotional state of the observer, and

Back 27

Emotional arousal can interfere with learning. For example, monkey who were sexually aroused by the model learned next to nothing compared to those not aroused.

Front 28

Cite and describe how each of the following conditions influence vicarious learning: (g) modeled task complexity.

Back 28

Complex tasks not as readily picked up through observation.

Front 29

Describe Fisher and Harris' (1976) study of the influence of the model's physical characteristics and mood on vicarious learning. (pp. 282-287)

Back 29

Experimenter asked two people (one observer, one model) to guess price. Observers were able to guess the model's price-estimate better when the model had been wearing an eye patch. Were better able to remember behaviour of model when they were expressive, either positive or negative. Conclusion: anything that attracts more careful attention from the observer makes them better able to remember the model. Power, attractiveness, etc, also increases the likelihood of imitation.

Front 30

Describe Bandura's social learning theory of vicarious learning and

Back 30

Vicarious learned accounted for by four processes during or shortly after observation: 1. Attentional: observing behaviour and its consequences (ie. Pay attention!) 2. Retentional: acts performed to aid recall of model behavior. E.g. representing model behavior, often in words, or through covert repetition. 3. Motor reproductive processes: eg must be able to perform the dance move to imitate ie. 4. Motivational processes: ie. Should I imitate? Expectation of reinforcement. PROBLEMS: explanatory value of the processes: do people differ in attentional processes, or have different learning histories? Do animals have sophisticated retentional processes? If not, must we assume these are essential to human vicarious learning?

Front 31

Miller and Dollard's reinforcement theory of vicarious learning. (pp. 287-291)

Back 31

Changes in an observer's behaviour are due to the consequences of the observer's behaviour, not those of the model. Ie. Follow brother running to door to greet dad, get candy. Rats follow other rats through maze if such acts are reinforced. Children imitate getting candy from machine when imitation reinforced, but also departed from imitation when only anything non-imitative was reinforced. Doesn't matter if there are delays: stimuli can have long term effects. Serious problem: imitation does occur in absence of reinforcement of observer behaviour. Children after candy from machine imitated other models without being reinforced with candy. Why? Generalized imitation? What about imitating unsuccessful model? ie. Celebrities who die while driving drunk? May be that social attention garnered is a reinforcement of this kind of stupidity.

Front 32

Describe the evidence indicating that animal foraging is influenced by vicarious learning, including Sherry and Galef's (1984) work with black-capped chickadees. (pp. 292-293)

Back 32

Birds opening milk bottles and monkeys washing potatoes: what one can learn on their own, others could learn on their own. Chickadees: U of T, presented each with cream tub for coffee. Some spontaneously pecked through the foil. These four were used as models for four that had not opened the tubs. Demonstrated the technique for observers for 5 trials. Another four received five trials without observing a model. Then, all birds presented with sealed tub to see what it had learned. Birds in vicarious learning group opened the tubs while untrained group did not. Gaudet and Fenton: 3 species of bats. One bat from each trained to find a bit of mealworm from target fastened to wall, retrieve it, eat it at starting point two yars away. 3 groups: Control put in room with target and no model, no training. 2. Vicarious group watched model up to 20 times/day for 5 days. 3. Operant group trained through reinforcement to find the food. Bats that observed model learned to find food faster than those that were trained solely through operant reinforcement. Control group did not find the food.

Front 33

Describe the evidence indicating that crime and violence is influenced by vicarious learning, including Bandura's (1963) Rocky and Johnny study. (pp. 293-295)

Back 33

Otto Larsen (1968): TV characters achieved goals by violent or illegal acts 56% of the time. Leonard Eron: longitudinal study: more time watching TV at age 8, more likely they were at age 30 to have been convicted of a serious crime and be aggressive after alcohol use. (only correlation). Albert Bandura: Rocky and Johnny: nursery kids watch video of Rocky beating up Johnny and taking toys. Then, they are put in a room with toys and a Bobo doll. Kids who watched the vidoes beat up Bobo dolls like Rocky beat Johnny, one girl even asked experimenter, "do you have a sack?" Panel of experts reviews more than a thousand studies conducted over 30 year period on the effects of violence in TV/film and aggressive behavior in children. Conclusion: evidence for a causal connection was "overwhelming." (see p. 295 of text).

Front 34

Describe the use of vicarious learning principles in treating phobias.

Back 34

Mary Cover Jones: method of social imitation: child scared ofrabbit reassured by watching other child hold rabbit without being eaten. Sometimes works the other way. Bandura andMenlove used videos instead of real interaction. To help children (3-5 years) overcome fear of dogs. Kids shown 8 films, 2/day, every other day. 3 groups: 1. shown 5 yr old boy ineract with cocker spaniel. He became bolder with each video. 2. Similar, except models were of varying ages interacting fearlessly with several dogs of different shape and size. 3. Saw films of Disneyland and Marineland. Results: Groups 1/2 were no longer afraid to interact with dogs. Even tested a month after end of training, still no fear. Group 3: no change.

Front 35

Provide and recognize original examples of participant modeling. (pp. 295-297)

Back 35

Observer watches as model performs desired act, then model guides observer through same behaviour. Bandura: college students and snakes: 1 Observer watches through 1 way glass as model handles kind snake. 2. Model puts snake in cage, invites observer to enter. 3. Model guided observer through series of interactions. Touch snake, hae observer touch, stroke snake, have observer stroke it, etc. Most observers lost fear of snake.

Front 36

Form of therapy: V-ABR

Back 36

Vicarious aversive behavior rehearsal: exhibitionist watches video of exhibitionist as he exposes himself to group of critical people in a clinical setting. (see. P. 295 of text)