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84 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Describe the way in which metaphors used to discuss memory have changed over time. (p. 389)
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Ancient: wax tablet. Renaissance: blank slate (could be wiped off). Industrial age: memos and snapshots stored in mental filing cabinets. 20th century: wax again, but this time, Edison's recording cylinder. Then, magnetic memories: could be recorded over. Today: experiences are measured in bytes and stored in memory banks like computers. All suggest memory is a replica of the past within us (if perhaps faint).
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Explain Skinner's contribution to the understanding of memory. (pp. 389-390)
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Redefined memory as a change in behavior as opposed to an internal record. Dog that increases tendency to jump through hoops, or child that recites the alphabet flawlessly, have changed their behavior. If they are unable or cease to behave in that way, we say they have forgotten.
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Define forgetting.
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Deterioration in learned behavior following a period without practice (when not due to aging, injury, or disease)
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Provide and recognize original examples of forgetting. (pp. 390-391)
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Can you still ride a bicycle? Can you still do algebra? Can you describe your first car?
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Does forgetting necessarily involve a decline in the probability of a behavior? Explain. (p. 391)
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No. If a rat is trained to press a lever when a light is off, and later presses the lever when light is on, behaviour has increased, and rat has forgotten. If conditioned suppression reduced a behavior, and it later increases, behaviour has increased, and the subject has forgotten something.
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Define the following terms: (list terms)
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a. retention interval b. free recall c. prompted or cued recall d. relearning method e. savings method f. recognition g. delayed matching to sample h. extinction method i. gradient degradation
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Define the following terms: (a) retention interval,
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A period during which the learned behavior is not performed
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Define the following terms: (b) free recall,
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The organism is given the opportunity to perform a previously learned behavior after retention interval.
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Define the following terms: (c) prompted or cued recall,
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Presents hints to increase the likelihood that the bheavior will be produced
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Define the following terms: (d) relearning method,
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Reinstating the original procedure
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Define the following terms: (e) savings method,
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Reinstating the original procedure (there is usually a "savings" of memory from the original procedure. Thus, this is both the relearning and savings method).
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Define the following terms: (f) recognition,
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Participant only needs to identify the material previously learned.
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Define the following terms: (g) delayed matching to sample,
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Also DMTS. Especially used with pigeons. Matching to sample procedure, but the animal is prevented from performing following presentation of the sample.
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Define the following terms: (h) extinction method, and
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Must be two subjects: one put on extinction immediately after training, one after a retention interval. If the second's behaviour extinguishes faster, forgetting has occurred.
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Define the following terms: (i) gradient degradation.
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Measures forgetting as a flattening of a generalization gradient.
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Provide and recognize original examples of each of these terms. (a) retention interval,
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Student taught to memorize a poem, tested on it a week later.
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Define the following terms: (b) free recall,
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Student memorizes a poem, retention interval passes, and then they are asked to recite it by heart. (scripture masteries are the same). Some written response or essay test questions are like this.
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Provide and recognize original examples of each of these terms. (c) prompted or cued recall,
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Memorize a list of words, then given the first letter of every word, or anagrams. Degree of forgetting could be tested by introducing the second letter if the first is inadequate, then the third, and so on.
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⁃Provide and recognize original examples of each of these terms. (d) relearning method,
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Rat learns to run maze in 30 trials. Later, learns in 20 trials, there has been a savings of 10 trials.
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Provide and recognize original examples of each of these terms. : (e) savings method,
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Rat learns to run maze in 30 trials. Later, learns in 20 trials, there has been a savings of 10 trials.
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Provide and recognize original examples of each of these terms. (f) recognition,
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Show participant a list of materials, have them identify the one they learned previously.
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Provide and recognize original examples of each of these terms. (g) delayed matching to sample,
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Pigeon trained to match to sample. Then, shown sample, and must wait to match it. If there is a delay, forgetting has occurred.
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Provide and recognize original examples of each of these terms. (h) extinction method, and
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Rat's trained to press lever. One immediately put on extinction, one goes through retention interval first, then extinction. If the second's behaviour extinguishes faster, forgetting has occurred.
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Provide and recognize original examples of each of these terms. (i) gradient degradation.
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Pigeon trained to peck medium yellow disk. Then, allowed to peck disks from dark to light yellow: expect a steep generalization gradient. If, after a month, the gradient has flattened, forgetting has occurred.
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Describe how Ebbinghaus (1885) studied forgetting. (pp. 392-396)
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Memorized a list of nonsense syllables until he could produce list twice without error. Then, retention interval. Then, relearning. If he could relearn it in fewer trials than the original learning, he had remembered something.
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Which two individuals contributed to the popular notion that memories are permanently stored in the brain? How did these individuals support this idea? (pp. 394-395)
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Sigmund Freud and Wilder Penfield. Freud said experiences were permanently stored in the "mental apparatus." Uncomfortable memories were consigned to the unconscious, only to reappear in dreams, hypnosis, etc. Penfield found unimportant events were recalled with complete detail when a particular spot in the brain was stimulated. However, some of these experiences had never occured. Ulric Neisser, prominent cognitive psychologist, said "Penfield's work tells us nothing new about memory"
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What is the general relationship between the length of the retention interval and forgetting?
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The longer the length of the retention interval, the more forgetting.
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What is the dominant view of the forgetting process as seen from outside the laboratory?
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Assumes that learning means storing up records of experience, and remembering is activating these records. As time goes by, these records deteriorate.
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Does the relationship between the length of the retention interval and forgetting necessarily mean that the passage of time causes forgetting? Explain. (pp. 397-398)
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No. To explain forgetting, we must identify events that account for its occurrence.
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How did Ebbinghaus (1885) demonstrate the relationship between how well something is learned and the likelihood of forgetting? (pp. 398-399)
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Ebbinghaus found a systematic relationship between the number of learning trials and the likelihood of forgetting. Practice a list 8 times, next day recalls little. Practiced 64 times, next day recall is near perfect. In other words, learning continues even after we have achieved mastery.
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Describe McGeoch's views regarding whether the passage of time accounts for forgetting. (p. 398)
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Said time is not an event, but an invention for talking about the occurrence of events. E.g. image on a film fades with time, but not because of time, because of the sun. Time, by itself, does nothing.
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Does learning continue to occur beyond the point of mastery? Explain.
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Ebbinghaus found a systematic relationship between the number of learning trials and the likelihood of forgetting. Practice a list 8 times, next day recalls little. Practiced 64 times, next day recall is near perfect. In other words, learning continues even after we have achieved mastery.
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What is overlearning?
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Continuing to learn beyond the point of mastery.
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Describe Krueger's (1929) study of overlearning. (pp. 398-399)
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3 lists of words with 12, one syllable nouns each. Presented words 1 per 2 seconds. After going through list first time, participant had to say the word before presented. 3 lists differed. 1. Worked until master (12 words correctly) then stopped. 2. Continued until half again as many times as needed to reach one errorless trial. 3. Twice as many trials as required for one errorless trial. Showed huge advantage to overlearning, although there are diminishing returns.
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Comment on overlearning
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Comment: Overlearning is one of the most important principles covered in this course due to the extent of its practical applications. In this course, students who know the answers to the study questions do well on the final exam because the final exam questions are based on the study questions. Many students prepare for the final exam by glancing over the study questions a few times, but fail to overlearn the answers. Other students overlearn the answers to the study questions by using a self-quizzing strategy in which they go through each question, try to recite the answer, and look up the answer in the course materials if they do not know the answer. Good students do this repetitively even after they have answered all the questions correctly. Some students who do not do well on the final exam attribute their poor performance to “test anxiety.” Although it is true that exams are a conditional stimulus for emotional responding, overlearning is the most important tool students can use to break through such conditioned emotional responding to enable the correct answers to flow out during exams.Overlearning, however, has its drawbacks. It is time consuming and can be monotonous. It also requires that students study beyond the point of apparent mastery. Students who are good at overlearning benchmark themselves not on how well they seem to know the material when they are studying, but instead on how well they will know it in the future. Overlearning requires more exact and intricate self-knowledge than many students have, but such self-knowledge can be acquired given the correct conditions.
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What is fluency?
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Number of correct responses per minute
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How can fluency be used to measure overlearning?
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Measure increase in correct responses per minute after baseline "mastery" is obtained, compare with control that stops at mastery.
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Provide and recognize examples of the use of fluency to measure overlearning. (p. 399)
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Two stuents memorize 20 French words until can recite all in 1 minute. If one student continues studying until can recite all in 30 seconds, they have overlearned. Compare forgetting after retention interval.
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Describe the relationship between the degree of overlearning and long-term retention.
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The more overlearning, the more long-term retention.
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Describe how Bahrick (1984) examined this relationship between degree of overlearning and long-term retention. (pp. 399-400)
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People who studied Spanish for only a year and earned a grade of C remembered little of what they once knew. Those who studied for 3 years and earned A's dis very well when tested, even 50 yars later. Difference was not due to practice opportunities, but how well learned originally. (Can you be sure?)
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Describe the general relationship between meaningfulness of verbal material and forgetting.
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The more meaningful, the less forgetting. Ericsson and Karat read Steinbeck at 1 word per second. Sometimes the words were in random order, sometimes in sentences. Random order, people could recall about 6 words correctly. In sentences, 12-14 words could be recalled (often complete sentences).
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What governs whether something is meaningful?
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Whether there is prior learning with that something.
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Cite the studies of chess masters versus novices in recalling positions on a chess board to illustrate this relationship. (pp. 400-401)
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A. de Groot: set chess pieces as if game in progress. Gave subjects 5 seconds to memorize, the asked them to reproduce the game on a cleared board. Chess masters were right 90% of the time. Cub players, 40%. Chase and Simon repeated the experiement with the pieces in random order, not set out in game fashion. Difference between masters and students disappeared.
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Define proactive interference.
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Where old learning interfere's with recall. Also called proactive inhibition.
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Provide and recognize original examples of proactive interference.
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Prior learning of a TJ may make learning jawmies hard
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Describe Bartlett's (1932) studies of proactive interference. (pp. 401-403)
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Bartlett: had people read Native folktale: The War of the Ghosts. By Western standards, it is disjointed and confusing. Had people read it twice, then reporduce the story. Did so again on other occasions over weeks and months "as opportunity offered." Later recollections became simpler, more coherent, and more modern.
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Describe Levine and Murphy's (1943) studies of proactive interference. (pp. 401-403)
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College students read a passage then reproduce it after 15 minutes. Then, read a 2nd passage and reproduce it 15 minutes later. Read and reproduced both, weekly, for 4 weeks. Both were on communism. One anti, one favorable. Some students were pro-communism, some anti. Students who were pro-communist forgot more of the anti-communist passage and vice versa. These views are learned, so they are proactive interference (or is it simply that a passage supporting something we believe in is more memorable because we already know more about how to support that subject than its opposition?)
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Define paired-associate learning.
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A method for studing proactive interference using competing associate pairs.
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Provide and recognize original examples of paired-associate learning. (p. 401)
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Typicaly, learn a list of word pairs, such as hungry-beautiful, so that when given the first word, can produce the second.All participants learn A-C list (hungry-beautiful) but some learn A-B list (hungry-fortunate) first. Learning A-B first reliably interferes with learning A-C list. The more lists learned before A-C test list, the more interference.
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What is the general relationship between the amount of activity during the retention interval and forgetting? (pp. 403-404)
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Period of inactivity produce less forgetting that comparable periods of greater activity. (Jenkins and Dalenbach studien retention of nonsense sylables after sleep and wakefulness).
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Define retroactive interference.
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When what we learn interferes with our ability to recall earlier learning. Also called retroactive inhibition.
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Provide and recognize original examples of retroactive interference.
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Paired associates tests: AB list is learned, then A-C list is learned. Ability to recall AB list is tested.
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Describe the experimental paradigm researchers use to study retroactive interference (see Thune and Underwood (1943)).
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College students learned 10 paired associates made up of adjectives. Relearned the list after 20 minutes. During the 20 minutes, some rested, others had 2-20 trials on A-C list. Used retention/savings method. A-C list inerefered with recall of A-B list. Better the A-C list was learned, the more it interfered.
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What is imagination inflation?
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When imagining an event is enough to convince a person that the event took place.
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Why does imagination inflation reflect retroactive interference? (pp. 404-405)
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Experience in the present interferes with recollections about the past, so imagination inflation seems to be example of retroactive interference.
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Define cue-dependent forgetting.
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When stimuli present during learning are absent during recall, and performance suffers. Linked to stimulus control, but the interval between S+ and S- is much longer.
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Provide and recognize original examples of cue-dependent forgetting.
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Person learns list of words in the morning, tested in the afternoon. Setting is the same, but the morning researcher was nice, in the afternoon, he was mean. In the morning it was gloomy, in the afternoon, sunny, etc. Perkins and Weyant: rats learned to run identical white and black mazes. 1 minute retention interval, rats put back in the mazes. If ran in same colour, no sign of forgetting. If ran in different color, performance suffered. Godden and Baddeley: adults learned list of word either on dry land or under water. Tested some under same conditions, some under opposite conditions. Recall suffered when testing situation was different.
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How did Greenspoon and Ranyard (1957) study cue-dependent forgetting? (pp. 406-408)
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Had students learn lists of words either standing up or sitting down. Remembered better if they were tested in same posture they learned in.
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Suggestion for final exam study. Answer: study at a computer.
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Comment: In this course students take an online final exam administered by a computer. What implications do the studies of cue-dependent forgetting have for how you should study for the final exam?
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What is reminiscence?
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When performance and memory improves over the passage of time.
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Be able to recognize and provide original examples of reminiscence. (pp. 406-407)
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Kamin: avoidance training for rats, but stopped before skill was mastered. Tested after training and various intervals. Rats were at their best right after training, then performance declined, but returned to best performance level 24 hours after training ended. Likely because physiological conditions are better at certain times of the day. (ie. hormone levels, fatigue, hunger, etc) which act as stimuli that are associated with the behavior. Overton gave trats tranquilizing drug, taught them to run a T-maze. They forgot when the drug wore off, but could do it again when reinjected. This is called state-dependent learning. Sober person who hides keys may not remember where they are when drunk. Drunk person who hides alcohol may not remember where it is when sober.
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Conditions that affect the rate of forgetting
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amount of training, retroactive interference, proactive interference, changes in context (including internal state). Also: amount of material, nature of test, instructions.
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Can animals remember certain types of things better than others? Explain.
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Yes. Parker showed that pigeons can recall brief series of key pecks for only seconds. Clark's nutcrackers remember where they cached food.
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Describe the recall abilities of Clark's nutcrackers. (pp. 408-409)
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Stores pine seeds to make it through the winter. Lucky hit rate would be 10%, they manage several times that level (Balda and Balda). Vander Wall had 2 Clark's nutcrackers store seeds in aviary. When they retrieved them, they found many of their own caches, but few of the other bird's.
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Describe Loftus' work in eyewitness testimony.
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Had college students watch video of car crash, then asked questions. Some were asked "did you see the broken headlight?" Others: "did you see a broken headlight?" Students were twice as likely to respond yes if the definite article was part of the question. Another study: asked "about how fast were the cars going when they hit each other?" Replaced "hit" with smashed, collided, bumped, or contacted. "Contacted" resulted in lowest estimates, "smashed" produced the highest. 1 week later: no review, but answered more questions. "remember seeing broken glass?" There had been none, but those asked earlier about "smashing" were twice as likely to report broken glass as those asked about cars hitting one another.
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What are the implications of these studies for the accuracy of reports of past events?
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Call the accuracy into question based on how the questions are asked, and the amount of time since the accident.
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How can the results from these studies be partially explained using reinforcement history? (pp. 409-411)
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Previous experience with the word "the" before "hat" means there was probably a hat, and reporting that you saw a hat might be reinforced. "Hit" is used with minor collisions, "smashed" with worse collisions. Due to the difference, we assume different damage when we connect the words with observed events. Again, may be reinforced by reporting correct information, and we assume the understanding of "smahed" gives us a leg up in describing those events accurately.
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Perfect response to Hugh Nibley's daughter's accusations via hypnosis:
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Bill Putnam (in Loftus, 1980, see text p. 411). Showed video of car-bicycle accident. Told some they would be hypnotized, and this would enable them to see the accident again just as it had happened. Both groups answered questions. Hypnotized participants made more mistakes, and were more likely to be influenced by leading questions. There was no plate, but when asked a leading question, one person not only "recalled" seeing it, but said it was a California plate beginning with W or V.
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Describe Ericsson and Chase's (1982) research showing how ordinary people can improve their recall. (p. 412)
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Student: SF No special skill. 1 hour, 3-5 days/week, for almost 2 years. 230 hours total. Presented SF with series of digits he was to reproduce. At first, reliably recalled 7 digits. Eventually, stretched this to break old record of 18 and make it to 82 digits. Another student, DD, reached 75.
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Describe the research concerning improvements in recall abilities that occur with practice.
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D,Amato traied monkeys in delayed matching to sample. Worked to extend the delay. Roscoe could response after interval of 9 seconds at first, but after several years, 70% correct after 9 minutes.
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Describe the SAFMEDS technique and the rationale behind this method. (pp. 413-414)
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Say All Fast Minute Each Day Shuffle. Developed by Ogden Lindsley
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What are mnemonics?
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Devices for aiding recall
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Explain how rhymes and acronyms can be used as memory aids.
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Couch material to be learned in a rhyme or acronym and it's more memorable.
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Provide and recognize original examples of the use of rhymes and acronyms as mnemonics. (p. 414)
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"use I before e, except after c, and in sounding like a, as in neighbor and weigh." SAFMEDS.Roy G. Biv, HOMES (first letter of Great Lakes)
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What is the method of loci?
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Fixes each fact to a particular location. When recalling that fact, go to the location.
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Be able to use the method of loci to remember the names of five objects. (p. 415)
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Pen, sticker, coat, basketball, cheese
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Describe the peg-word system in mnemonics. (p. 416)
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Memorize a list of pegs, then later, hang lists of items on the pegs.
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Be able to cite the following twenty peg words when given only the number associated with that word:
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See flashcard deck: Peg Words
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Fluency and memory
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Helps to time how long it takes to recite a list of words each day. The faster you can do it, the longer you are likely to remember it.
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Describe how to make use of context cues to facilitate remembering.
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Best practice: study everywhere. Second best: study in a similar setting to where recall will be required.
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Provide and recognize original examples of the use of context cues to aid remembering. (pp. 416-417)
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Study in the classroom you will take the test in.
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Describe how to use prompts to aid recall.
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Prompts are S+ to evoke behavior. Examples: memoranda (grocery list, notes on calendar, string on your finger, alarms on the phone). Visual prompts: when rain is predicted, put umbrella on the door handle. NAME PROMPTS: Anglo-saxon etymology, number of syllables, hard consonants, assonance, go through the alphabet, practice introduction covertly,
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Provide and recognize original examples of the use of prompts in recall. (pp. 417-419)
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Paper and pencil test of computer keyboard commands: imagine or put your hands as if they were on the keyboard
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Methods to improve ability to retain info:
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overlearning, mnemonics, mnemonic systems, appropriate setting, prompts
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