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127 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What is happiness? 2 components
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Happiness is a subjective state characterized by both cognitive & affective components. 1. cognitive: the belief that one's life is good. 2. affective: pleasant emotions (e.g. joy) as well as the absence of negative emotions (e.g. anger, anxiety, depression)
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How is happiness measured?
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-Overall satisfaction with life (scale) -single item scale -reports from family & friends -daily mood reports |
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What are the important outcomes of happiness?
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Healthier life, more productive, society benefits also. |
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Is America happy? |
Yes. In industrial nations most people (around 80%) report being "satisfied" or "very satisfied" with life. |
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What is the relation between relationships and life satisfaction? |
Good relationships (social support) appear to be essential to happiness. We need strong social support networks. People in relationships report more overall life satisfaction. |
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What is the relation between faith and happiness? |
Persons with faith tend to be much happier than persons lacking faith. Self report of happiness is higher. |
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What are the relations between religion, and delinquency, divorce, drug & alcohol abuse, physical & mental health, and suicide? |
Religious people are much less likely to engage in these behaviors. They appear to be better able to deal with crisis or loss. Moreover, they tend to be physically healthier and live longer. |
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What is the relation between work and happiness? |
Work is a key to happiness, and is strongly correlated. |
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Most satisfying work according to Csikszentmihalyi? skill level relation |
- when the work is TOO CHALLENGING for skills the work can be OVERWHELMING -when the work is TOO EASY for skills the work can be UNDERWHELMING - Must find EQUAL skill to task ratio for is to be satisfying. -Find work that is meaningful. |
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What is the most current view of the relation between wealth & happiness? |
There is a significant positive linear relation between wealth and happiness. As wealth increases, life satisfaction tends to increase. Money contributes to greater happiness. |
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What sorts of goals are associated with higher levels of life satisfaction? |
Relationship goals are associated with greater happiness. Merely having particular goals is predictive of life satisfaction. You must have achievable goals. |
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How do individuals with strong relationship or affiliation goals compare with individuals with strong status, power, and achievement goals in terms of happiness? |
Individuals who are concerned more with relationships and affiliations are happier that individuals who are concerned more with achievement and attain gin stays, power, or wealth. Preoccupation with achievement to the exclusion of intimacy is associated with greater stress level. |
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What does Campbell mean when he suggests that humans are on a "hedonic treadmill"? |
Human beings are on a hedonic treadmill on which "...gains in well being leave us no happier in the long run" |
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What is the "Hedonic treadmill" |
We put forth great effort and believe we are achieving gains that will make us happy. However, in the long run, our levels of life satisfaction are often little affected by our gains and losses. (e.g. lottery winners, accident victims recovery) |
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What are the two factors that contribute the stability of happiness over the long run? |
1. Major determinants of happiness such as key relationships, faith, work, and central goals remain the same over time. 2. People are adaptive. They adjust to changes in situations, and changes in gains and posses. They change their standards. |
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What is immune neglect? |
The tendency to underestimate the strength of the "psychological immune system" which enables us to resist and recover from the negative events. We underestimate our ability to adapt. |
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How does immune neglect effect our predictions of the impact of negative life events? |
We underestimate our ability to adapt. Because of immune neglect we overestimate how positively or negatively we will be affected by events. |
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How does immune neglect contribute to poor everyday decision making? |
We put forth more effort to attain changes in our gains and losses than we should given our adaptability. |
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What is an attitude? |
The positive or negative evaluation or feeling associated with a person, object, idea, or event. |
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What is the accessibility of an attitude? |
The ease with which the evaluation or feeling is activated. |
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What is an ambivalent attitude? |
Mixed feelings, often people have both positive and negative feelings toward objects and issues. |
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Why do people have attitudes? What are the 4 functions? |
Attitudes are functional. Basic functions are: - Object appraisal: attitudes enable us to quickly "size up" and appraise objects. - Social adjustment: attitudes help us to gain the approval of others. -Value expressive: attitudes are means of expressing our values and identities. -Ego defensive: attitudes help to protect us from unpleasant truths about ourselves. |
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Why are social psychologist interested in attitudes? |
Attitudes guide decisions and behavior. Because of this: -Behavior can be can be predated by attitudes. -Behavior can be influenced through attitude change. |
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Why is it important to understand attitudes and attitude change? |
Because attitude predicts behavior. Attitudes can be influenced. |
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Describe Evaluative conditioning... |
A conditioning mechanism. Attitude formation or change resulting from the mere co-occurrence of an object with a valences object. E.g. advertising: people like Michael Jordan-->he advertises for Nike--> people then like Nike. |
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Describe Operant Conditioning... |
The strengthening (or weakening) of a response as a result of positive (or negative) consequences. E.g. Punishment & reward reinforcement Family members and peers shape attitudes through operant conditioning. Parenting & racism. |
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What is attitude polarization? |
Thinking about a liked or disliked object increases the extremity of (polarizes) an attitude. -Confirmation bias -getting ourselves "worked up"
E.g. Being in love, kids that NEED the toy. |
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Why is it important to take a "step back" while making a big decision? |
You might fall into the polarization of the feeling if you don't. Stepping back might help the real feelings you have about something balance and you can make a better choice.
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Evaluations are not always based on knowledge of the good or bad qualities of objects. What are some other bases for evaluation other that knowledge of the good or bad qualities of objects? |
We want to fit in. Not always formed rationally. A lot of times our attitudes are based on fluff. |
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What is dissonance? |
An aversive arousal state. Feeling of regret, uncomfortable, induced by engaging in behavior that is inconsistent with our beliefs. |
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Under what conditions does attitude-descrepant behavior lead to dissonance. |
Perceived choice: you freely chose engage in the behavior, not forced. Negative consequences: our behavior has an effect we didn't want |
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What are 3 commonplace situations in which dissonance is induced. |
1. Induced compliance 2. Decision making 3. High costs and effort |
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What is dissonance caused by induced compliance? |
Situations in which people are induced or persuaded by others to act in an attitude inconsistent manner. |
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What is dissonance caused by decision making? |
In making difficult decisions, people must forgo desirable alternatives. |
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What is dissonance caused by high cost and effort? |
Situations in which people find themselves expending high effort or cost on an activity. E.g. justifying working at low paying job, because you love the work. |
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Other than behavior change, what are some other ways through which dissonance is reduced? |
-change attitudes to be consistent with behavior -alter thoughts about the degree of choice or responsibility -provide justification for behavior -RATIONALIZATION |
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What are the 2 routes of persuasion through the Elaboration likelihood model? EXAM QUESTION |
Central and peripheral |
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In the Elaboration Likelihood Model, what is the central route of persuasion? EXAM QUESTION |
The process in which the recipient carefully scrutinizes (cognitively elaborates about) the message content. Persuasion is determined by the MERITS of the arguments. |
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In the Elaboration Likelihood Model, what is the peripheral route of persuasion? EXAM QUESTION |
The process in which the message content is not carefully considered (or elaborated upon). Persuasion is determined by the SUPERFICIAL CUES that are peripheral to the message. |
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When does the central route of the Elaboration Likelihood Model occur? EXAM QUESTION |
The central route occurs when recipients are both motivated and able to process the message. When the message is important. |
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When does the peripheral route of the Elaboration Likelihood Model occur? EXAM QUESTION |
The peripheral rough occurs when recipients are unmotivated OR unable to process the message. When distracted or otherwise aroused. |
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Elaboration likelihood model... Strength of the argument.... EXAM QUESTION |
In HIGH involvement the strength of the argument matter MORE.
In LOW involvement the strength of the argument mattered LESS.
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Elaboration likelihood model... Expertise of the source... EXAM QUESTION |
In LOW involvement the expertise mattered MORE.
In HIGH involvement the expertise mattered LESS.
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What is conformity? |
Changes in belief, attitudes, or behavior resulting from real or imagined group pressure. In conformity, people abide by perceived norms. |
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What is anti-conformity? |
Changes in belief, attitudes, or behavior opposite to group norms as a result of real or imagined pressure. |
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What is the irony of many instances of anti-conformity? |
- is a response to group pressures -sometimes it involves conformity with another group -Anti-conformtity vs. independence
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Why do people conform? |
- to gain approval or avoid disapproval (need to fit in, get along, avoid conflict/ social disapproval)
-because other people are a good source of information (we want to learn & are afraid of being wrong) |
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People conform to gain approval or avoid disapproval. What is normative influence? |
Conformity based on a person's desire to fulfill others' expectations, often to GAIN ACCEPTANCE. If you don't conform you could get a negative response. |
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People conform because people are a good source of information. What is informational influence? |
Conformity occurring when people accept evidence about reality provided by other people. Sometimes other people know better than us, so we believe them. |
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What are the factors affecting conformity? |
- group size, 1-2 vs 3-5 the larger the group the less conformity -consensus, does everyone agree or is there one dissenter? -awareness of norms |
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How well does personality predict conformity? |
Not very well. When strong norms exist or strong social pressures are operating, everyone conforms. Social pressure is powerful.
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When does personality predict behavior well? |
When social influences are weak. When group pressures are weak. When self-image and self-esteem is low. |
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How does the perception and misperception of norms affect conformity? |
People often misperceive norms. People are influenced by their perception of norms, NOT by the norms per se. |
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What is the need for uniqueness? How does it effect likelihood of conformity? |
-People like to be unique & different. We value independence & freedom of choice. -We don't like to feel pressured.
--If those things are challenged we are less likely to conform. |
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What is reactance?
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The motivation to protect or restore one's freedom.
Pressure or coming on to strong leads them into reactance. |
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How does reactance affect the likelihood of conformity? |
Conformity does not happen. Often excessive and opposite reaction the person is trying to elicit. (ex. prohibition, censorship, teenagers) |
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Why does merely suggesting a hypothesis or idea often influence their beliefs and behavior? |
=Help others to arrive at the conclusion on their own. -If you can get people to generate the idea, or make them believe that it is their idea, they are especially likely to be influenced. -The importance of a sense of ownership of the idea. |
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Why is suggestion often a more effective influence strategy than directly telling a person what to do or believe? |
They have a sense of ownership over the choice. |
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What factors were shown to affect the likelihood of obedience in studies using the Milgram paradigm? |
-Status or "legitimacy" of the environment and experimenter -proximity of the experimenter & participant -proximity of the participant & victim -level of aggression show by experimenter to participant |
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How does the depersonalization of a potential victim affect the likelihood of aggressive obedience? |
-When the victim was close to the participant, and they could see the pain they caused, the participant was less likely to obey.
-When the victim was out of observation range of the participant was more likely to obey. |
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What sorts of people obeyed the experimenter and administered high levels of shock in the Milgram experiment and similar studies? EXAM QUESTION |
All types of people. Businessmen, housewives, college students, it was pretty universal to all people. |
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How did most people predict they would behave if they were subjects in the Milgram experiment? EXAM QUESTION |
They believed they wouldn't obey the aggressive commands, that their moral believes would win out. |
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How did most members of the public explain the destructive obedience observed in the Milgram studies? What judgmental error is this? EXAM QUESTION |
They made the "fundamental attribution error". They assumed they must be evil and it was something about them intrinsically, when the reality is that the situation created the behavior. |
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What did the Milgram experiments tell us about human behavior? EXAM QUESTION |
We are hard wired to obey authority. |
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What is self-presentation? |
Strategies people use to shape the impressions other form of them. Impression management. |
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What are the 2 most fundamental effects of self-presentation behavior? |
-impressions of others -impressions of self |
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What is the carryover effect? |
-Instances where self-presentation behavior effects how person perceive themselves. In some cases it can be good or cause dissonance. |
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What is the self-presentational goal of ingratiation? |
The establish oneself in the favor or good graces of others through deliberate effort. |
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What is the main difficulty with being an ingratiator? |
They could look like a phony. |
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Identify 4 specific ingratiation tactics. |
1. Imitations & conformity- agree with them, best to pick and choose to conform on important topics 2. Flattery- pick things they are unsure of. 3. modesty- drawback, people tend to believe you more. 4. favors
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What facilitates ingratiation? |
The target wants to buy into it and see it as sincere. (compliments, favors) |
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What is the self-presentational goal of self-promotion? |
Strategy aimed at appearing competent and inducing respect. Ultimate aim: to appear dominant. |
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What are the 2 main difficulties confronting a self-promoter? |
-It could create the wrong impression- immodest -It could diminish credibility & authenticity- fake |
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Identify 3 specific self-promotion tactics. |
1. Describing ones accomplishments, abilities, credentials, relationships. 2. Demonstrating ones abilities, showing off. 3. BIRGing: (Basking In Reflective Glory) Sharing the glory of a successful other with whom you are in some way associated. (ex. college football) |
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What is BIRGing? |
Basking In Reflective Glory. Sharing the glory of a successful other with whom you are in some way associated. (ex. college football) |
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What is self-handicapping? EXAM QUESTION |
Actions or statements that enhance the opportunity to avoid blame for failure and to accept credit for success. Used to make us appear capable. |
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When are people especially likely to self-handicap? 3 situations EXAM QUESTION |
-When they are uncertain about their ability to perform & anticipate they may fail. -When the task is important. -When the need to make a good impression is high. |
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Explain how self-handicapping takes advantage of the augmentation and discounting principles. EXAM QUESTION |
When they are successful, attributions of high ability or skill are augmented. When they fail, attributions of low ability or low skill are discounted.
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How can an individual benefit from self-handicapping in the case of good performance as well as in the case of a bad performance?
What are the 2 main benefits of self-handicapping?
EXAM QUESTION |
1. They are increasing the ability level perceived if they do well with the handicap. 2. If they fail they have a built in excuse. |
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What are the 3 drawbacks or costs of self-handicapping? EXAM QUESTION |
1. Increases the likelihood of real failure (self-fulfilling prophesy) 2. People dislike and disrespect self-handicappers (people hate excuses) 3. Lower performance assessments |
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What is self-monitoring? |
The tendency to change our behavior in response to the self-presentational concerns of different social situations. |
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Explain a LOW self-monitor. Traits... factors that influence behavior |
-They have a principled concept of the self. They dine themselves in terms of their inner values, beliefs, attitudes, and traits. -They adjust their behavior based on their values and attitudes. |
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Explain a HIGH self-monitor. Traits... factors that influence behavior |
- They have a pragmatic concept of the self. They define themselves in terms of their roles and behaviors in different social settings. -They adjust their behaviors based on social situations and social demands. |
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Status is dependent on an individual's occupation, position, relationships, group memberships, accomplishments, wealth, gender, and a variety of other factors. |
Just know this concept. |
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Why are people concerned with their social status? |
-We are pre-wired to be. -It affects how we are treated. -It affects our influence over other -Influences mating opportunity -Influences economic & social opportunities
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What are the benefits of high status? |
-Our life opportunities are better. - We have dominance. -People perceive us positively -We are accepted.
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What do people do to create the appearance of high status and dominance? 3 things |
-Self-promotions, showing off -Displaying artifacts of the status -conspicuous consumption -dominance mimicry (imitate those that have real status) -Nonverbal expressions and postures |
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How does status affect how people are perceived? |
-Our influence is determined by perceived status. -Mostly influences how we are treated and our influence ability on others. |
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According to Morris, how do would-be leaders with no real hope of leading fulfill their needs for dominance? |
-Tribal specialization (ex. president of the chess club) -Dominance Mimicry |
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What do high status members do to counteract the imitations of low status persons? |
-The wealthy sets standards that are so high that other's can't reach them. -They reinvent themselves to separate them from the masses. |
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According to Morris, what are some negative consequences of our efforts to attain dominance or to attain the appearance of dominance? 6 things |
1. neglect of family & relationships 2. frustration & aggression 3. Self-harm, suicide 4. financial difficulty 5. societal divisions, fragmentation 6. waste & damage to the environment
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Many specific social influence techniques take advantage of our tendency to respond in a mindless or automatic manner without considering all of the information or options available to us. They take advantage of chronic behavioral patterns and our reliance on heuristics. Social influence techniques also work b/c we sometimes have difficulty saying "no" and asserting ourselves. |
Just know this. |
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What is the foot in the door technique? 2 steps? Strategy? |
A social influence technique. 1. Obtain compliance to a small request. 2. Followed by a separate, larger request.
Justification follows the first small request leading to attitude change. The attitude change increases the chance of the second larger request. |
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What is the lowball technique? 2 steps? Strategy? |
A social influence technique. 1. Secure agreement to a request 2. Increase size of the request by revealing hidden costs
Justification needed after the first agreement made leading to attitude change, the change leads to most likely staying with agreement. |
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What is reciprocity? |
Exploited tendency, the tendency to reciprocate the favors others perform for us. |
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What is the door in the face technique? 2 steps? Strategy? |
A social influence technique. 1. make an extremely large request which is typically rejected 2. follow up with a small request
-exploits reciprocity -contrast effect, second seems easy next to the first |
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How does public commitment affect behavior? |
It increases the likelihood someone will follow through with the commitment & behavior, a lot because of attitude change. |
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How can a person reduce the likelihood of being taken advantage of by various social influence attempts? 3 things EXAM QUESTION |
1. Vigilance- be aware that others may be trying to manipulate you using various tactics. 2. Thoughtful decision making. Influence techniques work because we don't think. 3. Assertiveness- Just say "no". Don't be a doormat, sucker, or wimp. |
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What is a cult? |
A seedling religious movement, not accepted society. Considered false, extreme, unorthodox. |
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What distinguishes a cult from other religious groups? |
Religious groups are established by time and are generally accepted by society to be normal. Cults are not. |
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Why do people join cults? 4 things |
-need for religious meaning -need for relationships and social support -need for status or identity -need for food and shelter |
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Who is most susceptible to cult involvement?
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-The alienated, looking for direction. -People with weak relationships & beliefs -Individuals in a transition period (18-30) -Individuals in recovery from difficulty or loss -People in need of food, shelter, and medical care. |
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How does saying influence believing? |
Saying leads to believing. |
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How does role playing affect attitudes? |
Role playing leads to attitude change. |
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What are the important communicator variables that affect persuasion? 2 things |
-Credibility: perceived expertise & trustworthiness of the source -Attractiveness: having qualities that appeal to an audience.
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Who tends to be influenced more by rational appeals as opposed to emotional appeals? EXAM QUESTION |
Well educated or analytical people are responsive to rational appeals. |
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When does a fear arousing message work best? EXAM QUESTION |
The more frightened and vulnerable people feel, the more they respond. |
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When are one sided messages more effective than two sided messages?EXAM QUESTION
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when presenting an argument to those who already agree.
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What is a primacy effect? EXAM QUESTION |
Other things being equal, information presented first usually has the most influence. |
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What is the recency effect? EXAM QUESTION |
Information presented last sometimes has the most influence. Recency effects are less common than primacy effects. Associated with forgetting. |
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How does the order in which information is presented affect persuasion? |
Usually the message presented first is more influential. But if the receivers forgets the first message the last one has the lasting influence (less common). |
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What is the "inoculation effect" or "attitude inoculation"? EXAM QUESTION |
Exposing people to weak attacks upon their attitudes so that when stronger attacks come, they will have refutations available. Inoculate people against persuasion. |
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What is an "inoculation program"? EXAM QUESTION |
A system in which we expose children to the truths of often persuasive and damaging societal ills (ex. smoking, alcohol, and even just advertising) making them less likely to be influenced as easily. Often in schools by teachers. |
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What is the "order of persuasiveness" of different media channels? |
1. Live (face-to-face) 2. Videotaped 3. Audiotaped 4. Written |
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What sort of persuasion messages are best communicated in writing? |
Messages that are difficult to comprehend. |
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When do communications lead to attitude change? |
When they person doesn't usually have a reestablished opinion, or a tendency for what is being influenced. When the person doesn't think about things too much. |
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What is forewarning? |
When a person knows someone is going to attempt to influence them. |
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Why does forewarning diminish the likelihood of persuasion? |
The person has the opportunity to activate attitudes, prior knowledge, and preexisting arrangements. |
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How does distraction disarm counter arguing? |
It keeps our minds occupied when we would otherwise be coming up with a counter argument. |
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Distinguish compliance from conversion. |
Compliance: getting someone to do things, collaborate. Conversion: a change in attitudes and beliefs. |
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To what extent were the communist Chinese successful in bringing about real attitude change in their American prisoners? |
They were not very successful. They got them to collaborate, but not convert or change attitudes. |
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What brainwashing techniques tend to be the most successful in producing compliance and attitude change? |
Breaking down self-image and social structure or ties within the group. |
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What techniques or practices are used in cult indoctrination and recruitment? 5 things |
1. provide belonging, relationships 2. provide real services, food, shelter 3. persuasion, message, charismatic leader 4. Isolation from family and friends 5. Increase dependency on group |
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Are cult recruitment techniques unique to cults? To what extent are they used in other groups? |
No they aren't unique to cults. They are used in all organizations. They are used at a more accepted level in all organizations. |
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Explain the role of behavioral commitment and the foot in the door technique in cult indoctrination. |
They create the need for the victim to justify their behavior and choices leading to real attitude change and conversion to the cult. |
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What are 3 of the key persuasive elements that may be used in a cult indoctrination and recruitment? |
1. The communicator (credibility expertise, trustworthiness, attractiveness) 2. The message 3. The audience
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How does isolation from families and former friends increase cult involvement and commitment? |
-Destroys social support for prior beliefs and attitudes -Reduced exposure to counterarguments, and dissenting views -Increased involvement in the group |
