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121 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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WHY STUDY MOTIVATION
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- increased productivity - not all purpose motivation theory
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WHAT IS MOTIVATION |
- not easy to define - people who work hard, keep at their work |
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Content theories of motivation: |
Focus on those needs that must be met in order to motivate individuals. e.g.. Self Determination Theory |
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Process Theories |
Focus on the underlying processes involved in motivating employees; how motivation occurs. e.g. goal setting theory |
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Self-Interest: Pleasure and Pain - Hedoism |
hedoism is when you’re obsessed with satisfying pleasure and minimizing pain what causes pleasure, and what causes pain? |
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Motivation: |
The extent to which persistent effort is directed toward a goal; persistent effort directed towards a goal. |
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Four factors of motivation (class) |
- Effort (dependent on the job (eg. physical vs. mental)) - Persistence (do you continue working after a big accomplishment, or when you’re defeated?) - Direction (channel persistent effort in a direction that benefits the organization) - Goals (all motivated behaviour has a goal or objective) |
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Three basic elements of motivation: |
- effort - persistence - direction |
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Intrinsic motivation: |
- motivation that stems from the direct relationship between the worker and the task; it is usually self-applied. - achievement, accomplishments, challenge and competence derived from performing one’s job - avid participation in sports and hobbies |
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Extrinsic motivation: |
- motivation that stems from the work environment external to the task; it is usually applied by others. - pay, fringe benefits, company policies, various forms of supervision - some have extrinsic and intrinsic qualities availability of extrinsic motivators can reduce intrinsic motivation stemming from the task itself - negative effect of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic motivation occurs only under very limited conditions and are easily available |
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Self-Determination Theory (SDT): |
a theory of motivation that considers whether people’s motivation is autonomous or controlled. |
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Autonomous motivation: |
when people are self-motivated by intrinsic factors. |
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Controlled motivation: |
when people are motivated to obtain a desired consequence or extrinsic reward
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what is autonomous motivation positively associated with |
- positive work attitudes, and psychological well-being |
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Deci SOMA Study |
3 days puzzles and magazines on the table On day: not told there is a reward experimental group: for every puzzle you solve, you get $1 take away extrinsic motivation
Each day: Deci “leaves” the room says they can do whatever they want interested in how long they play with the soma puzzle Day 1: no difference in groups Day 2: control - status quo; experimental group - play with the puzzle longer, because they’re extrinsically motivated Day 3: go back to magazine - major complaint is that there is always extrinsic motivation at work (getting paid) |
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The Self Determination Continuum |
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The Three Needs |
1. Autonomy self determined, we have free will establish requirements Experiencing choice and feeling like the initiator of one’s own actions 2. Competence Being able to attain desired outcomes and succeeding at optimally challenging tasks 3. relatedness Establishing a sense of mutual respect and reliance with others |
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What Happens When Needs Aren’t Me |
lower job satisfaction, poorer mental health, lowered self-esteem, deviant behaviours |
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Performance: |
the extent to which an organizational member contributes to achieving the objectives of the organization. |
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General cognitive ability: |
a person’s basic information – processing capacities and cognitive resources overall capacity and efficiency for processing information - predicts learning, training and career success; job performance in all kinds of jobs |
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Emotional intelligence: |
the ability to understand and manage one’s own and other’s feelings and emotions. - high EIs are able to identify and understand the meanings of emotions, and to manage and regulate their emotions as a basis for problem solving, reasoning, thinking and action |
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Four Branch Model of Emotional Intelligence |
1. Perceiving emotions accurately in oneself and others 2. Using emotions to facilitate thinking 3. Understanding emotions, emotional language, and the signals conveyed by emotions 4. Managing emotions so as to attain specific goals - predicts performance in: job performance and academic performance - positively related to job performance, cognitive ability and the Big Five personality - strongly related to job performance in jobs that require high levels of emotional labour |
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The Motivation-Performance Relationship |
- possible to have low performance when a person is highly motivated - can’t consider motivation in isolation |
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Need theories of motivation: |
- motivation theories that specify the kinds of people have and the conditions under which they will be motivated to satisfy these needs in a way that contributes to performance.
needs=>behaviour=>incentive and goals
- concerned with what motivates workers contrasted with process theories (how various factors motivate people) |
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Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs |
a five-level hierarchical need theory of motivation that specifies that the lowest level unsatisfied need has the greatest motivating potential. - satisfied needs are no longer an effective motivator - prepotency: the lowest unsatisfied need is what motivates you at any given time - invariant: |
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The Needs in Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs |
- Physiological needs - Safety Needs - Belongingness Needs - Esteem Needs - Self-Actualization Needs
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Physiological needs and organizational factors
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survival needs organization factors: minimum pay for survival, working conditions that promote existence |
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Safety Needs and organizational factors
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security, stability, freedom from anxiety, structured and ordered environment organization conditions: safe working conditions, fair and sensible rules and regulations, job security, a comfortable work environment, pension/insurance, pay above minimum need to survive |
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Belongingness Needs and organizational factors |
social interaction, affection, love, companionship and friendship organization factors: interact with others, friendly and supportive supervision, teamwork, develop new social relationships |
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Esteem Needs and organizational factors |
feeling of adequacy, competence, independence, strength, confidence, appreciation and recognition of these characteristics organization factors: mastery of tasks, awards, promotions, prestigious job titles, professional recognition => all to satisfy needs |
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Self-Actualization Needs and organizational factors |
hardest to define, desire to develop one’s true potential; clear perception of reality organization conditions: absorbing jobs with the potential for creativity and growth |
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ERG Theory: |
a three-level hierarchical need theory of motivation (existence, relatedness growth) that allow that allow for movement up and down the hierarchy. |
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ERG Theory Needs |
- Existence needs
- Relatedness needs
- Growth needs
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Existence needs (ERG Theory)
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material substance or condition food, shelter, pay and safe working conditions |
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Relatedness needs (ERG Theory)
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open communication; exchange of thoughts and feelings with other organizational members open, accurate, honest interaction |
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Growth needs (ERG Theory) |
strong, personal involvement in the work setting self-actualization |
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Differences between ERG and Maslow's theories |
- does not assume lower level needs must be satisfied before a less concrete – not a rigid hierarchy of needs - assumes that if the higher-level needs are ungratified, individuals will increase their desire for the gratification of lower level needs |
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Two Major Motivational Premises |
- the more lower level needs are gratified, the more higher level needs satisfaction is desired - the less higher level needs are gratified, the more lower level need satisfaction is desired |
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McClelland’s theory of needs: |
a non-hierarchical need theory of motivation that outlines the conditions under which certain needs result in particular patterns of motivation. not hierarchical – behavioural consequences of needs 3 needs: achievement, affiliation and power |
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Need for achievement: |
- a strong desire to perform tasks well - a preference for situations in which personal responsibility can be taken for outcomes - a tendency for set moderately difficult goals that provide for calculated risks - a desire for performance feedback innovation, long-term goal involvement; intrinsically satisfying |
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Need for affiliation: |
a strong desire to establish and maintain friendly, compatible interpersonal relationships avoid conflict, competition, strong conformity (nAff) |
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Need for power (nPow): |
- a strong desire to influence others, making a significant impact or impression - seek out social situations where they can be influential - tendency to advocate risky positions - motivated to seek out and perform well in jobs that match their needs - most effective managers have low need for affiliation, a high need for power, and the ability to direct power toward organizational goals |
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Maslow’s need hierarchy suggests 2 main hypotheses |
1. specific needs should cluster into the five main needs categories 2. as needs in a given category are satisfied, they should become less important |
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Managerial Implications of Need Theories |
Appreciate diversity Appreciate intrinsic motivation |
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Expectancy theory: |
a process theory that states motivation is determined by the outcomes that people expect to occur as a result of their actions on the job. |
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Outcomes: |
Consequences that follow work behaviour in |
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Instrumentality: |
the probability that a particular first-level outcome will be followed by a particular second-level outcome. |
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Valence: |
the expected value of work outcomes, the extent to which they are attractive or unattractive. |
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Expectancy: |
the probability that a particular first-level outcome can be achieved. |
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Force: |
the effort directed toward a first-level outcome. |
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Research Support for Expectancy Theory
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- valence of first-level outcomes depend on extent to which they lead to favourable second-level consequences |
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Managerial Implications of Expectancy Theory |
- Boost expectancies - Clarify reward contingencies - Appreciate diverse needs |
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Equity theory: |
a process theory that states that motivation stems from a comparison of the inputs one invests in a job and the outcomes one receives in comparison with the inputs and outcomes of another person or group. |
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Managerial Implications of Equity Theory |
- variety of negative motivational consequences: low productivity, low quality, theft, turnover equitable balance – stem from perceptual social comparison |
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Goal: |
the object or aim of action - all organizations have goals - many employees report that they are unclear of goals |
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Goal setting theory: |
a process theory that sates that goals are motivational when they are specific, challenging, when organizational members are committed to them, and when feedback about progress towards goal attainment is provided. |
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Four mechanisms of goal setting theory |
- direct attention - greater effort - prolong persistence - task relevant strategies |
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Goal Specificity |
- specify an exact level of achievement
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Goal challenge
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- depends on experience and basic skills - not too hard or too easy |
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Goal commitment |
- effects of goals on performance is strongest when there is high commitment |
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Goal Feedback |
most beneficial when they are accompanied by ongoing feedback |
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Lathan & Baldes (1975) |
- trucks weren’t being filled to their capacity - given the goal to fill the trucks to 94% of their capacity - saved $250,000 dollars within a month |
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Enhancing Goal Communication |
Participation - research evidence on the effects of participation is mixed (sometimes participation increases performance, sometimes it decreases) - goal commitment is a problem, participation may prove it to be beneficial - if there’s already high commitment, it may not be necessary Rewards - does not necessarily need extrinsic rewards to be successful Supportiveness - for goal setting to work, supervisors must demonstrate they support their employees with goal accomplishment |
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Goal orientation: |
an individual’s goal preferences in achievement situations. |
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Learning goal orientation: |
a preference to learn new things and develop competence in an activity by acquiring new skills and mastering new situations. |
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Performance prove goal orientation: |
a preference to obtain favourable judgments about the outcome of one’s performance. |
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Performance-avoid goal orientation: |
a preference to avoid negative judgments about the outcome of one’s performance. - goal orientation is important for learning and performance |
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Distal goal: |
long term or end goal. |
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Proximal goal: |
short-term goal or sub-goal. |
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Research Support for Goal Setting Theory |
- most valid and practical theories of employee motivation - specific, difficult goals lead to improved performance and productivity - effects of goal setting on performance depends on a number of factors - proximal goals have been found to be especially important for novel and complex tasks |
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Managerial Implications of Goal Setting Theory |
- set specific and challenging goals - provide ongoing feedback so individuals can compare performance - obviously are some limitations |
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OVERCOMING POTENTIAL PITFALLS OF GOAL SETTING THEORY |
- What do you do when ability is limited? performance goals: outcome focus learning goals: knowledge or skills
Negative Feedback - transform negative self statements
Ethics - linking financial reward to goal success difficult goals and bonus for success - both good and bad are very strong incentives linear incentive system - good: minimizes cheating; no upper limit on bonus - bad: less incentive to stretch; unlimited bonus |
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DO MOTIVATION THEORIES TRANSLATE ACROSS CULTURES |
important to realize cross cultural limitations some general similarities individualistic societies: value individualism, privacy, taking care of oneself collectivistic societies: close knit group bonds expectancy theory is good for cross-culturality (because of flexibility) |
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four motivators: |
money, job design, management by objectives and alternative working schedules |
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MONEY AS A MOTIVATOR |
- package made up of pay and various fringe benefits - pay is very important - stronger to those with lower level needs (Maslow, Alderfer) - research on pay and financial incentives is consistent with the predictions of need theory and expectancy theory - research suggests pay is the most important |
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Piece-rate: |
a pay system in which individual workers are paid a certain sum of money each unit of production completed |
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Wage incentive plans: |
various systems that link pay to performance on production jobs. - substantial increase in productivity |
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Potential Problems with Wage Incentives |
Lowered Quality Differential opportunity - unfair disadvantage Reduced co-operation Incompatible job design Restriction of productivity - happens because workers feel that increased productivity due to incentive will lead to reductions in the workforce - if they produce too much, labour incentive will be cut |
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Restriction of productivity: |
the artificial limitation of work output that occur under wage incentive plans |
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Linking Pay to Performance on White-Collar Job |
fewer objectives where pay can be tied |
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Merit pay plans: |
systems that attempt to link pay to performance on white collar jobs. - used more than wage incentive plans - most are ineffective - pay isn’t related to performance under most merit plans |
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Potential Problems with Merit Pay Plans
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Low discrimination Small increases - respond to this with the lump sum bonus - “gets people attention” Pay secrecy |
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Lump sum bonus: |
merit pay that is awarded in a single payment and not built into base pay. |
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Using Pay to Motivate Teamwork |
Profit Sharing Employee Stock Ownership Plans (ESOPs) Gain sharing Skill-Based Pay
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Profit sharing: |
the return of some company profit to employees in the form of a cash bonus or a retirement supplement - commonly used - reinforces identification with the company - work best in small organizations that regularly turn a profit |
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Employee stock ownership plans: |
incentive plans that allow employees to own a set amount of a company’s shares and provide employees to own a set amount of a company’s shares and provide employees with a stake in the company’s future earnings and success - work best in small organizations that regularly turn a profit |
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Gain sharing: |
a group pay incentive plan based on productivity or performance improvements over which the workforce has some control. - reductions in cost of labour, material, supplies - committees with extensive workforce participation |
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Skill-based pay: |
a system in which people are paid according to the number of job skills they have acquired - also known as pay for knowledge - encourages employee flexibility in task assignments - especially useful in self-managerial teams - high training costs |
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Job design: |
the structure, content and configuration or a person’s work tasks and roles. |
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Job scope: |
the breath and depth of a job |
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Breadth: |
the number of different activities performed on a job. |
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Depth: |
the degree of discretion or control a worker has over how work tasks are performed. |
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- low scope: - high breadth/low depth or vice versa: - high breath/high depth:
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- low scope: assembly line job - high breadth/low depth or vice versa: low scope - high breath/high depth: high scope (eg. professor) - high scope jobs should provide more intrinsic motivation |
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Job rotation: |
rotating employees to different tasks and jobs in an organization |
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Core job characteristics |
- 5 core job characteristics Skill variety: Autonomy: Task significance: Task identity: Feedback: Growth need strength: |
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Skill variety: |
the opportunity to do a variety of job activities using various skills and talents |
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Autonomy:
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the freedom to schedule one’s own work activities and decide work procedures |
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Task significance: |
the impact that a job has on other people. |
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Task identity:
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the extent to which a job involves doing a complete piece of work, from beginning to end. |
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Feedback:
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information about the effectiveness of one’s work performance |
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Growth need strength: |
the extent to which people desire to achieve higher-order need satisfaction by performing their jobs. |
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Task Significance and Call Centres |
working in a call centre 3 groups: 1 was the control, 1 group was given a letter from a beneficiary, 1 was given a letter and a meeting with a beneficiary increase with meeting and letter, no difference in time spent on phone and money raised |
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Task Significance Saves Lives |
- washing your hands at the hospital - 3 types of signs: personal focus, patient focused, neutral gibberish (control group) most soap used with the patient focus
- nurses and doctors - higher rates after the intervention - nurses higher than doctors before intervention, doctors higher than nurses after intervention |
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Moderators
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alter the nature of the relationship between an independent variable and a dependent variable |
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Job enrichment: |
the designs of jobs to enhance intrinsic motivation, quality of working life and job involvement. |
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Job involvement: |
a cognitive state of psychological identification with one’s job and the importance of work to one’s total self image. |
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some enrichment tactics:
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combining tasks establishing external client relationships establishing internal client relationships reducing supervision or reliance on others forming work teams making feedback more direct |
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Potential Problems with Job Enrichment
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Poor diagnosis Lack of desire or skill Demand for rewards Union resistance Supervisory resistance |
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Job enlargement: |
increasing job breadth by giving employees more tasks at the same level to perform but leaving other core characteristics unchanged. |
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Work design characteristics: |
attributes of the task, job and social and organizational environment |
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3 categories of work design characteristics:
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1. motivational characteristics – task characteristics, knowledge 2. social characteristics – interpersonal, social aspects 3. work context characteristics – context within work is performed |
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Prosocial motivation: |
the desire to expend effort to benefit other people. |
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Relational architecture of jobs: |
the structural properties of work that shape employee’s opportunities to connect and interact with other people. |
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Management by objectives: |
an elaborate, systematic ongoing program designed to facilitate goal establishment, goal accomplishment and employee development |
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All MBO share these similarities
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- manager and employee agree on job performance and personal development objectives, time frames and priorities are put in writing - periodic meetings to monitor progress - appraisal meeting is held to evaluate the extent of achievement - MBO cycle is repeated |
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Flextime: |
an alternative work schedule in which arrival and departure times are flexible. - should reduce absenteeism - degree of prestige and trust |
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Compressed workweek: |
an alternative work schedule in which employees work fewer than the normal five days a week but still put in the normal number of working hours per week. |
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Job sharing: |
an alternative work schedule in which two part-time employees divide the work of a full-time job |
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Work-sharing: |
reducing the number of hours employees work to avoid layoffs when there is a reduction in normal business activity.
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What are job and work sharing typically used for? |
- used to avoid layoffs |
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Telecommuting: |
a system by which employees are able to work at home, but stay in touch with their offices through the use of communications technology, such as a computer network, voicemail, and electronic messages - response to flexible work arrangement request. |
