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173 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Social Psychology
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Scientific study of the way in which people's thoughts, feelings, and actions are influenced by the real or imagined presence of other people
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Construal
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The way in which people perceive, comprehend, and interpret the social world
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Individual Differences
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The aspects of people's personalities that make them different from other people
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Fundamental Attribution Error
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The tendency to overestimate the extent to which people's behavior is due to internal, dispositional factors, and to underestimate the role of situational factors
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Hindsight Bias
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The tendency for people to exaggerate how much they could have predicted an outcome after knowing that it occurred
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4 influencing motives of Construals
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1) to be accurate
2) to feel good about ourselves 3) to achieve acceptance and approval of others 4) to reduce uncertainty |
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Correspondence Bias
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The tendency to infer that people's behavior corresponds to (matches) their disposition (personality)
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Self-fulfilling Prophecy
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The case whereby people have an expectation about what another person is like, which influences how they act toward that person, which causes that person to behave consistently with people's original expectations, making the expectations come true
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Theory
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A coherent set of related principles that explains observed phenomena
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Hypothesis
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A specific, falsifiable prediction derived from theory
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Random assignment + Control of extraneous variables =
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Internal Validity
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Representative sample + Psychological realism =
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External Validity
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Internal Validity
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Making sure that nothing besides the independent variable can affect the dependent variable; this is accomplished by controlling all extraneous variables and by randomly assigning people to different experimental conditions
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External Validity
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The extent to which the results of a study can be generalized to other situations and to other people
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Statistical Significance
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When outcome is probably not due to chance
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Practical Significance
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When outcome is large enough to make some meaningful difference in real life
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Non-Experimental (Correlational) Research Advantages
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1) No manipulation or control of variable required
2) you can use "in vivo" data |
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Directionality Problem (Non-Experimental Research)
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Not sure which variable causes which to happen
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Third variable problem (Non-Experimental Research)
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A third variable is causing the "apparent" correlation between the first two variables
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Research rules
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1) Welfare and Rights of subjects must be of primary concern
2) Informed consent required 3) Deception and Concealment must be justified and debriefing is necessary 4) Institutional Review Boards must approve design and methods |
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Social Cognition
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How people think about themselves and the social world; more specifically, how people select, interpret, remember, and use social information to make judgements and decisions
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Automatic Thinking
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Thinking that is nonconscious, unintentional, involuntary, and effortless
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Schemas
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Mental structures people use to organize their knowledge about the social world around themes or subjects and that influence the information people notice, think about, and remember
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Accessibility
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The extent to which schemas and concepts are at the forefront of people's minds and are therefore likely to be used when making judgments about the social world
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Priming
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The process by which recent experiences increase the accessibility of a schema, trait, or concept
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Illusory Correlation
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The tendency to see relationships, or correlations, between events that are actually unrelated.
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Chameleon effect
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Inducing behavioral mimcry
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Judgmental heuristics
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Mental shortcuts people use to make judgments quickly and efficiently
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Availability Heuristic
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A mental rule of thumb whereby people base a judgment on the ease with which they can bring something to mind
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Representativeness Heuristic
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A mental shortcut whereby people classify something according to how similar it is to a typical case
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Anchoring & Adjustment
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Judgment influenced by an arbitrary, unrelated value used as an "anchor" from which insufficient adjustment is made
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Base Rate Information
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Information about the frequency of members of different categories in the population
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Controlled Thinking
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Thinking that is conscious, intentional, voluntary, and effortful
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Counterfactual Thinking
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Mentally changing some aspect of the past as a way of imagining what might have been
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Thought Suppression
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The attempt to avoid thinking about something we would prefer to forget
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Monitoring Process
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Automatic part of Thought Suppression
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Operating Process
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Controlled part of Thought Suppression
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Upward Counterfactual Thinking
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Negative affect, but increased motivation
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Downward Counterfactual Thinking
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Positive affect, but no motivational enhancement
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Social Perception
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The study of how we form impressions of and make inferences about other people
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Nonverbal Behavior
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The way in which people communicate, intentionally or unintentionally, without words; nonverbal cues include facial expressions, tone of voice, gestures, body position and movement, the use of touch, and gaze. It is mostly automatic
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6 Basic Emotions
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Fear, Anger, Surprise, Happiness, Disgust, Sadness
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Encode
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To express or emit nonverbal behavior, such as smiling or patting someone on the back
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Decode
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To interpret the meaning of the nonverbal behavior other people express, such as deciding that a pat on the back was an expression of condescension and not kindness
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Women are better than men at both decoding and encoding nonverbal behavior except for one.....
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Anger
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Implicit Personality Theory
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A type of schema people use to group various kinds of personality traits together, for example, many people believe that someone who is kind is generous as well
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Attribution Theory
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A description of the way in which people explain the causes of their own and other people's behavior
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Internal Attribution
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The inference that a person is behaving in a certain way because of something about the person, such as attitude, character, or personality
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External Attribution
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The inference that a person is behaving a certain way because of something about the situation he or she is in; the assumption is that most people would respond the same way in that situation
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Covariation Model
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A theory that states to form an attribution about what caused a person's behavior, we systematically note the pattern between the pressence or absence of possible causal factors and whether or not the behavior occurs.
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Consensus Information
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Information about the extent to which other people behave the same way toward the same stimulus as the actor does
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Distinctiveness Information
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Information about the extent to which one particular actor behaves in the same way to different stimuli
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Consistency Information
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Information about the extent to which the behavior between one actor and one stimulus is the same across time and circumstances
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Low Consistency, High or Low Consensus, High or Low Distinctiveness
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External Attribution
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High Consistency, Low Consensus, Low Distinctiveness
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Internal Attribution
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High Consistency, High Consensus, High Distinctiveness
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External Attribution
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Perceptual Salience
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The seeming importance of information that is the focus of people's attention
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Actor/Observer Difference
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The tendency to see other people's behavior as dispositionally caused but focusing more on the role of situation factors when explaining one's own behavior
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Self-Serving Attributions
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Explanations for one's successes that credit internal, dispositional factors and explanations for one's failures that blame external, situational factors.
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Individualist Culture
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1) More Prone to FAE
2) Subject to actor-observer and correspondence biases 3) More prone to self-serving attributions |
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Collectivist Culture
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1) Less prone to FAE
2) Subject to actor-observer and correspondence biases (when situational info is missing) 3) Less prone to self-serving attributions |
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Judgmental Overconfidence
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Overestimating the accuracy of our beliefs about others and ourselves
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Self-Concept
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The content of the self; that is, our knowledge about who we are
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Self-Awareness
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The act of thinking about ourselves
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Independent View of the Self
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A way of defining oneself in terms of one's own internal thoughts, feelings, and actions and not in terms of the thoughts, feelings, and actions of other people. (Western cultures)
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Interdependent View of the Self
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A way of defining oneself in terms of one's relationships to other people; recognizing that one's behavior is often determined by the thoughts, feelings, and actions of others. (Asian Cultures)
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Self-Esteem
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People's evaluations of their own self-worth, that is, the extent to which they view themselves as good, competent, and decent
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Self-Efficacy
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The belief in one's ability to carry out specific actions that produce desired outcomes
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Introspection
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The process whereby people look inward and examine their own thoughts, feelings, and motives
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Self-Awareness Theory
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The idea that when people focus their attention on themselves, they evaluate and compare their behavior to their internal standards and values
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False Consensus
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Overestimating the commonality of one's opinions or undesirable behaviors/failures
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False Uniqueness
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Underestimating the commonality of one's abilities or desirable behaviors/successes
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The Barnum Effect
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If it's flattering, it must be true.
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Self-Perception Theory
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The theory that when our attitudes and feelings are uncertain or ambiguous, we infer these states by observing our behavior and the situation in which it occurs
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Over-justification effect
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If given a reward for doing something they enjoy doing, people will do it less after the reward is ceased than if never given a reward at all
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Intrinsic Motivation
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The desire to engage in an activity because we enjoy it or find it interesting, not because of external rewards or pressures
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Extrinsic Motivation
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The desire to engage in an activity because of external rewards or pressures, not because we enjoy the task or find it interesting
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Social Comparison Theory
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The idea that we learn about our own abilities and attitude by comparing ourselves to other people
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Downward Social Comparison
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Comparing ourselves to people who are worse than we are on a particular trait or ability
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Upward Social Comparison
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Comparing ourselves to people who are better than we are on a particular trait or ability
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Two-Factor Theory of Emotion
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The idea that emotional experience is the result of a two-step self-perception process in which people first experience physiological arousal and then seek an appropriate explanation for it
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Misattribution of Arousal
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The process whereby people make mistake inferences about what is causing them to feel the way they do
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Spotlight effect
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Overestimating the extent to which our actions/appearance are noticed by and affect others
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Illusion of Transparency
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Overestimating others' accuracy in reading our thoughts and feelings
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Self-handicapping
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Creating an excuse for possible future failure
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Threatened egotism
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High self-esteem, but others don't think your that good
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Cognitive Dissonance
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A drive or feeling of discomfort, originally defined as being caused by holding two or more inconsistent cognitions and subsequently defined as being caused by performing an action that is discrepant from one's customary, typically positive self-conception
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Impact Bias
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The tendency to overestimate the intensity and duration of our emotional reactions to future negative events
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Post-decision Dissonance
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Dissonance aroused after making a decision, typically reduced by enhancing the attractiveness of the chosen alternative and devaluating the rejected alternatives
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Lowballing
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An unscrupulous strategy whereby a salesperson induces a customer to agree to purchase a product at a very low cost, subsequently claims it was an error, and then raises the price; frequently, the customer will agree to make the purchase at the inflated price
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Justification of effort
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The tendency for individuals to increase their liking for something they have worked hard to attain
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External Justification
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A reason or an explanation for dissonant personal behavior that resides outside the individual
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Internal Justification
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The reduction of dissonance by changing something about oneself
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Insufficient Punishment
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The dissonance aroused when individuals lack sufficient external justification for having resisted a desired activity or object, usually resulting in individuals' devaluing the forbidden activity or object
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Self-Affirmation
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Attitude-Behavior inconsistency threatens our Self-Esteem. We recover it by changing attitude to match behavior
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Cognitively based Attitude
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An attitude based primarily on people's beliefs about the properties of an attitude object
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Affectively Based Attitude
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An attitude based more on people's feelings and values than on their beliefs about the nature of an attitude object
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Classical Conditioning
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The phenomenon whereby a stimulus that elicits an emotional response until the neutral stimulus takes on the emotional properties of the first stimulus
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Operant Conditioning
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The phenomenon whereby behaviors we freely choose to perform become more or less frequent, depending on whether they are followed by a reward or punishment
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Behaviorally Based Attitude
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An attitude based on observations of how one behaves toward an attitude object
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Explicit attitudes
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Attitudes that we consciously endorse and can easily report
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Implicit Attitudes
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Attitudes that are involuntary, uncontrollable, and at time unconscious
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Central Route to Persuasion
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The case whereby people elaborate on a persuasive communication, listening carefully to and thinking about the arguments, as occurs when people have both the ability and the motivation to listen carefully to a communication
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Peripheral Route to Persuasion
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The case whereby people do not elaborate on the arguments in a persuasive communication but are instead swayed by peripheral cues
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Attitude Inoculation
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Making people immune to attempts to change their attitudes by initially exposing them to small doses of the arguments against their position
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Reactance theory
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The idea that when people feel their freedom to perform a certain behavior is threatened, an unpleasant state of reactance is aroused, which they can reduce by performing the threatened behavior
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Subliminal Messages
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Words or pictures that are not consciously perceived but may nevertheless influence people's judgments, attitudes, and behaviors
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Conformity
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A change in one's behavior due to the real or imagined influence of other people
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Normative Influence
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The influence of other people that leads us to conform in order to be liked and accepted by them; this type of conformity results in public compliance with the group's beliefs and behaviors but not necessarily private acceptance of those beliefs and behaviors
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Informational Influence
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The influence of other people that leads us to conform because we see them as a source of information to guide our behavior; we conform because we believe that others' interpretation of an ambiguous situation is more correct than ours and will help us choose an appropriate course of action
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Norm
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Rule or standard for what is acceptable, appropriate, or correct in terms of judgment, value, perception, belief, behavior
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Conformity Increases when.....
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1) Subject is solitary dissenter
2) Group Size increases 3) The behavior is public 4) People are unsure of a situation 5) People are of lower status 6) The motivation to be accurate is high and ambiguity is high |
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Foot-in-the-door
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Getting someone to do something small, then asking for a bigger favor so they'll do it
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Door-in-the-face
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A moderate request preceded by a large requested so that the subjects will comply
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Group
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Three or more people who interact and are interdependent
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Social Roles
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Shared expectations in a group about how particular people are supposed to behave
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Social Facilitation
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The tendency for people to do better on simple tasks and worse on complex tasks when they are in the presence of others and their individual performance can be evaluated
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Social Loafing
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The tendency for people to relax when they are in the presence of others and their individual performance cannot be evaluated, such that they do worse on simple tasks but better on complex tasks
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Free riding
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Intentional social loafing
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Deindividuation
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The loosening of normal constraints on behavior when people can't be identified
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Group Polarization
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The tendency for groups to make decisions that are more extreme than the initial inclinations of its members
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Groupthink
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A kind of thinking in which maintaining group cohesiveness and solidarity is more important than considering the facts in a realistic manner.
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Causes of Groupthink
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1) High group cohesiveness
2) Directive leadership 3) High Stress 4) Low expectation of finding suitable alternatives 5) Lack of formal method and procedures |
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How to Prevent Groupthink
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1) Leader refrains from endorsing and evaluating solutions
2) Encouraging dissent - appointing a devil's advocate and increasing diversity of group 3) Permitting outside scrutiny and input 4) Exhaustively search alternatives and criticize preferred course of action 5) Prepare contingency plans |
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Majority Influence
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Normative Conformity
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Minority Influence
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Information Influence
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Great Person Theory
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The idea that certain key personality traits make a person a god leader, regardless of the situation
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Task-Oriented Leader
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A leader who is concerned more with getting the job done than with workers' feelings and relationships
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Relationship-Oriented Leader
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A leader who is concerned primarily with workers' feelings and relationships
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Contingency Theory of Leadership
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The idea that leadership effectiveness depends both on how task-oriented or relationship-oriented the leader is and on the amount of control and influence the leader has over the group
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Social Dilemma
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A conflict in which the most beneficial action for an individual will, if chosen by most people, have harmful effects on everyone
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Public Goods Dilemma
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A social dilemma in which individuals must contribute to a common pool in order to maintain the public good
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Commons Dilemma
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A social dilemma in which everyone takes from a common pool of goods that will replenish itself if used in moderation but will disappear if overused
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Altruism
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The desire to help another person even if it involves a cost to the helper
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Kin Selection
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The idea that behaviors that help a genetic relative are favored by natural selection
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Norm of Reciprocity
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The expectation that helping others will increase the likelihood that they will help us in the future
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Social Exchange Theory
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Minimizes costs and maximizes rewards
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Bystander effect
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The finding that the greater the number of bystanders who witness an emergency, the less likely any one of them is to help
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Pluralistic Ignorance
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The belief that if others are not responding, it must not be an emergency
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Diffusion of Responsibility
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The feeling that other bystanders will take responsibility in an emergency
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Bystander effect increases when
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1) The situation is ambiguous
2) The bystanders are strangers 3) Others' reaction are difficult to interpret 4) The number of bystanders increases |
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Aggression
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Intention behavior aimed at doing harm or causing pain to another person
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Hostile Aggression
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Aggression stemming from feelings of anger and aimed at inflicting pain
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Instrumental Aggression
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Aggression as a means to some goal other than causing pain
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Eros
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The instinct toward life
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Thanatos
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An instinctual drive toward death
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Amygdala
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An area in the core of the brain that is associated with aggressive behaviors
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Serotonin
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A chemical in the brain that may inhibit aggressive impulses
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Testosterone
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A hormone associated with aggression
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Frustration-Aggression Theory
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The idea that frustration--the perception that you are being prevented from attaining a goal--increases the probability of an aggressive response
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Egoistic Deprivation
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When one thinks they are at a disadvantage than everyone else in the group
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Fraternal Deprivation
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When a group thinks they are at a disadvantage
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Relative Deprivation
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Feeling that one has less than one deserves or has been led to expect
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Provocation-Reciprocation
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People usually feel the need to reciprocate after they are provoked by aggressive behavior from another person
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Aggressive Stimulus
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An object that is associated with aggressive responses and whose mere presence can increase the probability of aggression
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Social-Cognitive Learning theory
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The idea that we learn social behavior by observing others and imitating them
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Catharsis (NOT TRUE)
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The notion that "blowing off steam" --by performing an aggressive act, watching others engage in aggressive behaviors, or engaging in a fantasy of aggression--relieves built-up aggressive energies and hence reduces the likelihood of further aggressive behavior
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Acquisition
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The process by which people notice and pay attention to information in the environment; because people cannot perceive everything that is happening around them, they acquire only a subset of the information available in the environment
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Storage
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The process by which people store in memory information they have acquired from the environment
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Retrieval
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The process by which people recall information stored in their memories
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Own-Race Bias
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The fact that people are better at recognizing faces of their own race than those of other races
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Reconstructive Memory
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The process whereby memories of an event become distorted by information encountered after the event occured
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Source Monitoring
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The process whereby people try to identify the source of their memories
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Prejudice
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A hostile or negative attitude toward a distinguishable group of people, based solely on their membership in that group
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Stereotype
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A generalization about a group of people in which certain traits are assigned to virtually all members of the group, regardless of actual variation among the members
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Discrimination
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Unjustified negative or harmful action toward a member of a group simply because of his or her membership in that group
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Out-Group Homogeneity
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The perception that individuals in the out-group are more similar to each other than they really are, as well as more similar than the members of the in-group are
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Accentuation
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Overestimating between-group differences
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Illusory Correlation
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The tendency to see relationships, or correlations, between events that are actually unrelated
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Ultimate Attribution Error
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The tendency to make dispositional attributions about an entire group of people
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Stereotype Threat
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The apprehension experienced by members of a group that their behavior might confirm a cultural stereotype
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Modern Racism Scale
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1) Denial of continuing discrimination
2) Antagonism toward demands 3) Resentment about special favors |
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Conditions under which stereotyping and prejudice are most likely
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1) When ambiguity is high
2) Excessive cognitive demands 3) Situational "Excuses" are present 4) When self-esteem is threatened or reduced 5) Emotional arousal 6) Group interactions 7) Unfamiliar vs. familiar targets |
