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122 Cards in this Set

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  • Back
cohort
A group defined by the shared age of its members, who, because they were born at about the same time, move through life together, experiencing the same historical events and cultural shifts.
critical period
A time when a particular type of developmental growth (in body or behavior) must happen if it is ever going to happen.
culture
A system of shared beliefs, norms, behaviors, and expectations that persist over time and prescribe social behavior and assumptions
difference-equals-deficit error
The mistaken belief that a deviation from some norm is necessarily inferior to behaviors or characteristics that meet the standard
differential sensitivity
The idea that some people are more vulnerable than others are to certain experiences, usually because of genetic differences
dynamic systems
A view of human development as an ongoing, ever-changing interaction between the physical, cognitive, and psychosocial influences. The crucial understanding is that development is never static but is always affected by, and affects, many systems of development
ecological-systems approach
The view that in the study of human development, the person should be considered in all the contexts and interactions that constitute a life. (Later renamed bioecological theory.)
epigenetic
Referring to the effects of environmental forces on the expression of an individual's, or a species', genetic inheritance.
ethnic group
People whose ancestors were born in the same region and who often share a language, culture, and religion
life-span perspective
An approach to the study of human development that takes into account all phases of life, not just childhood or adulthood
race
A group of people who are regarded by themselves or by others as distinct from other groups on the basis of physical appearance, typically skin color. Social scientists think race is a misleading concept, as biological differences are not signified by outward appearance
sensitive period
A time when a certain type of development is most likely to happen or happens most easily, although it may still happen later with more difficulty. For example, early childhood is considered a sensitive period for language learning
social construction
An idea that is based on shared perceptions, not on objective reality. Many age-related terms, such as childhood, adolescence, yuppie, and senior citizen, are social constructions
socioeconomic status (SES)
A person's position in society as determined by income, wealth, occupation, education, and place of residence. (Sometimes called social class.)
empirical evidence
Evidence that is based on observation, experience, or experiment, not theory.
hypothesis
A specific prediction that can be tested.
nature
A general term for the traits, capacities, and limitations that each individual inherits genetically from his or her parents at the moment of conception.
nurture
A general term for all the environmental influences that affect development after an individual is conceived.
replication
The repetition of a study, using different participants.
science of human development
The science that seeks to understand how and why people of all ages and circumstances change or remain the same over time.
scientific method
A way to answer questions that requires empirical research and data-based conclusions.
case study
An in-depth study of one person, usually requiring personal interviews to collect background information and various follow-up discussions, tests, questionnaires, and so on
cross-sectional research
A research design that compares groups of people who differ in age but are similar in other important characteristics.
cross-sequential research
A hybrid research design in which researchers first study several groups of people of different ages (a cross-sectional approach) and then follow those groups over the years (a longitudinal approach). (Also called cohort-sequential research or time-sequential research.)
dependent variable
In an experiment, the variable that may change as a result of whatever new condition or situation the experimenter adds. In other words, the dependent variable depends on the independent variable.
experiment
A research method in which the researcher tries to determine the cause-and-effect relationship between two variables by manipulating one (called the independent variable) and then observing and recording the ensuing changes in the other (called the dependent variable).
independent variable
In an experiment, the variable that is introduced to see what effect it has on the dependent variable. (Also called experimental variable.)
longitudinal research
A research design in which the same individuals are followed over time and their development is repeatedly assessed.
scientific observation
A method of testing a hypothesis by unobtrusively watching and recording participants' behavior in a systematic and objective manner in a natural setting or in a laboratory; a search of archival data is another way to conduct scientific observation.
survey
A research method in which information is collected from a large number of people by interviews, written questionnaires, or some other means.
correlation
A number that indicates the degree of relationship between two variables, expressed in terms of the likelihood that one variable will (or will not) occur when the other variable does (or does not). A correlation indicates only that two variables are related, not that one variable causes the other to occur.
What are the 6 steps to the scientific method?
1. Begin with curiosity…Pose a question2. Develop a hypothesis3.Test the hypothesis4. Analyze the evidence gathered in research5. Report the results 6. Replication with new population
developmental theory
A group of ideas, assumptions, and generalizations that interpret and illuminate the thousands of observations that have been made about human growth. A developmental theory provides a framework for explaining the patterns and problems of development
norm
An average, or standard, measurement, calculated from the measurements of many individuals within a specific group or population
accommodation
The restructuring of old ideas to include new experiences
assimilation
The reinterpretation of new experiences to fit into old ideas
behaviorism
A grand theory of human development that studies observable behavior. Behaviorism is also called learning theory because it describes the laws and processes by which behavior is learned
classical conditioning
The learning process in which a meaningful stimulus (such as the smell of food to a hungry animal) is connected with a neutral stimulus (such as the sound of a tone) that had no special meaning before conditioning. (Also called respondent conditioning.)
cognitive equilibrium
In cognitive theory, a state of mental balance in which people are not confused because they can use their existing thought processes to understand current experiences and ideas.
cognitive theory
A grand theory of human development that focuses on changes in how people think over time. According to this theory, our thoughts shape our attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors
conditioning
According to behaviorism, the processes by which responses become linked to particular stimuli and learning takes place. The word conditioning is used to emphasize the importance of repeated practice, as when an athlete conditions his or her body to perform well by training for a long time
information-processing theory
A perspective that compares human thinking processes, by analogy, to computer analysis of data, including sensory input, connections, stored memories, and output
modeling
The central process of social learning, by which a person observes the actions of others and then copies them. (Modeling is also called observational learning.)
operant conditioning
The learning process by which a particular action is followed by something desired (which makes the person or animal more likely to repeat the action) or by something unwanted (which makes the action less likely to be repeated). (Also called instrumental conditioning.)
psychoanalytic theory
A grand theory of human development that holds that irrational, unconscious drives and motives, often originating in childhood, underlie human behavior.
reinforcement
The process by which a behavior is followed by something desired, such as food for a hungry animal or a welcoming smile for a lonely person
social learning theory
An extension of behaviorism that emphasizes the influence that other people have over a person's behavior. Even without specific reinforcement, every individual learns many things through observation and imitation of other people.
apprenticeship in thinking
Vygotsky's term for how cognition is stimulated and developed in people by more skilled members of society.
guided participation
The process by which people learn from others who guide their experiences and explorations
humanism
A theory that stresses the potential of all humans for good and the belief that all people have the same basic needs, regardless of culture, gender, or background
selective adaptation
The process by which living creatures (including people) adjust to their environment. Genes that enhance survival and reproductive ability are selected, over the generations, to become more prevalent
sociocultural theory
A newer theory that holds that development results from the dynamic interaction of each person with the surrounding social and cultural forces
eclectic perspective
The approach taken by most developmentalists, in which they apply aspects of each of the various theories of development rather than adhering exclusively to one theory
allele
A variation that makes a gene different in some way from other genes for the same characteristics. Many genes never vary; others have several possible alleles
chromosome
One of the 46 molecules of DNA (in 23 pairs) that virtually each cell of the human body contains and that, together, contain all the genes. Other species have more or fewer chromosomes
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
The chemical composition of the molecules that contain the genes, which are the chemical instructions for cells to manufacture various proteins
gamete
A reproductive cell; that is, a sperm or ovum that can produce a new individual if it combines with a gamete from the other sex to make a zygote
gene
A small section of a chromosome; the basic unit for the transmission of heredity. A gene consists of a string of chemicals that provide instructions for the cell to manufacture certain proteins
genome
The full set of genes that are the instructions to make an individual member of a certain species
zygote
The single cell formed from the union of two gametes, a sperm and an ovum
23rd pair
The chromosome pair that, in humans, determines sex. The other 22 pairs are autosomes, inherited equally by males and females
assisted reproductive technology (ART)
A general term for the techniques designed to help infertile couples conceive and then sustain a pregnancy
dizygotic (DZ) twins
Twins who are formed when two separate ova are fertilized by two separate sperm at roughly the same time. (Also called fraternal twins.)
genotype
An organism's entire genetic inheritance, or genetic potential.
heterozygous
Referring to two genes of one pair that differ in some way. Typically one allele has only a few base pairs that differ from the other member of the pair
homozygous
Referring to two genes of one pair that are exactly the same in every letter of their code. Most gene pairs are _____________.
in vitro fertilization (IVF)
Fertilization that takes place outside a woman's body (as in a glass laboratory dish). The procedure involves mixing sperm with ova that have been surgically removed from the woman's ovary. If a zygote is produced, it is inserted into a woman's uterus, where it may implant and develop into a baby
intra-cytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI)
An in vitro fertilization technique in which a single sperm cell is injected directly into an ovum
monozygotic (MZ) twins
Twins who originate from one zygote that splits apart very early in development. (Also called identical twins.) Other monozygotic multiple births (such as triplets and quadruplets) can occur as well
stem cells
Cells from which any other specialized type of cell can form
XX
A 23rd chromosome pair that consists of two X-shaped chromosomes, one each from the mother and the father. XX zygotes become females
XY
A 23rd chromosome pair that consists of an X-shaped chromosome from the mother and a Y-shaped chromosome from the father. XY zygotes become males
carrier
A person whose genotype includes a gene that is not expressed in the phenotype. The carried gene occurs in half of the carrier's gametes and thus is passed on to half of the carrier's children. If such a gene is inherited from both parents, the characteristic appears in the phenotype
copy number variations
Genes with various repeats or deletions of base pairs
dominant-recessive pattern
The interaction of a heterozygous pair of alleles in such a way that the phenotype reflects one allele (the dominant gene) more than the other (the recessive gene)
Human Genome Project
An international effort to map the complete human genetic code. This effort was essentially completed in 2001, though analysis is ongoing
multifactorial
Referring to a trait that is affected by many factors, both genetic and environmental, that enhance, halt, shape, or alter the expression of genes, resulting in a phenotype that may differ markedly from the genotype
phenotype
The observable characteristics of a person, including appearance, personality, intelligence, and all other traits
polygenic
Referring to a trait that is influenced by many genes
X-linked
A gene carried on the X chromosome. If a male inherits an X-linked recessive trait from his mother, he expresses that trait because the Y from his father has no counteracting gene. Females are more likely to be carriers of X-linked traits but are less likely to express them
heritability
A statistic that indicates what percentage of the variation in a particular trait within a particular population, in a particular context and era, can be traced to genes
Down syndrome
A condition in which a person has 47 chromosomes instead of the usual 46, with 3 rather than 2 chromosomes at the 21st site. People with Down syndrome typically have distinctive characteristics, including unusual facial features, heart abnormalities, and language difficulties. (Also called trisomy-21.)
fragile X syndrome
A genetic disorder in which part of the X chromosome seems to be attached to the rest of it by a very thin string of molecules. The cause is a single gene that has more than 200 repetitions of one triplet
age of viability
The age (about 22 weeks after conception) at which a fetus might survive outside the mother's uterus if specialized medical care is available
embryo
The name for a developing human organism from about the third through the eighth week after conception
embryonic period
The stage of prenatal development from approximately the third through the eighth week after conception, during which the basic forms of all body structures, including internal organs, develop
fetal period
The stage of prenatal development from the ninth week after conception until birth, during which the fetus gains about 7 pounds (more than 3,000 grams) and organs become more mature, gradually able to function on their own
fetus
The name for a developing human organism from the start of the ninth week after conception until birth
germinal period
The first two weeks of prenatal development after conception, characterized by rapid cell division and the beginning of cell differentiation
implantation
The process, beginning about 10 days after conception, in which the developing organism burrows into the placenta that lines the uterus, where it can be nourished and protected as it continues to develop
ultrasound
An image of a fetus (or an internal organ) produced by using high-frequency sound waves.
Apgar scale
A quick assessment of a newborn's health. The baby's color, heart rate, reflexes, muscle tone, and respiratory effort are given a score of 0, 1, or 2 twice--at one minute and five minutes after birth--and each time the total of all five scores is compared with the maximum score of 10 (rarely attained).
cesarean section (c-section)
A surgical birth, in which incisions through the mother's abdomen and uterus allow the fetus to be removed quickly, instead of being delivered through the vagina. (Also called simply section.)
doula
A woman who helps with the birth process. Traditionally in Latin America, a doula was the only professional who attended childbirth. Now doulas are likely to arrive at the woman's home during early labor and later work alongside a hospital's staff.
anoxia
A lack of oxygen that, if prolonged, can cause brain damage or death.
behavioral teratogens
Agents and conditions that can harm the prenatal brain, impairing the future child's intellectual and emotional functioning.
cerebral palsy
A disorder that results from damage to the brain's motor centers. People with cerebral palsy have difficulty with muscle control, so their speech and/or body movements are impaired.
false positive
The result of a laboratory test that reports something as true when in fact it is not true. This can occur for pregnancy tests, when a woman might not be pregnant even though the test says she is, or during pregnancy when a problem is reported that actually does not exist
fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)
A cluster of birth defects, including abnormal facial characteristics, slow physical growth, and reduced intellectual ability, that may occur in the fetus of a woman who drinks alcohol while pregnant
low birthweight (LBW)
A body weight at birth of less than 5½ pounds (2,500 grams).
preterm
A birth that occurs 3 or more weeks before the full 38 weeks of the typical pregnancy--that is, at 35 or fewer weeks after conception
small for gestational age (SGA)
A term for a baby whose birthweight is significantly lower than expected, given the time since conception. For example, a 5-pound (2,265-gram) newborn is considered SGA if born on time but not SGA if born two months early. (Also called small-for-date.)
teratogen
An agent or condition, including viruses, drugs, and chemicals, that can impair prenatal development and result in birth defects or even death.
threshold effect
In prenatal development, the point at which a teratogen is relatively harmless in small doses but becomes harmful once exposure reaches a certain level (the threshold).
very low birthweight (VLBW)
A body weight at birth of less than 3 pounds, 5 ounces (1,500 grams).
Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale (NBAS)
A test often administered to newborns that measures responsiveness and records 46 behaviors, including 20 reflexes.
couvade
Symptoms of pregnancy and birth experienced by fathers.
kangaroo care
A form of newborn care in which mothers (and sometimes fathers) rest their babies on their naked chests, like kangaroo mothers that carry their immature newborns in a pouch on their abdomen
parent-infant bond
The strong, loving connection that forms as parents hold, examine, and feed their newborn
parental alliance
Cooperation between a mother and a father based on their mutual commitment to their children. In a parental alliance, the parents support each other in their shared parental roles
postpartum depression
A new mother's feelings of inadequacy and sadness in the days and weeks after giving birth
reflex
An unlearned, involuntary action or movement in response to a stimulus. A reflex occurs without conscious thought

A time when a particular type of developmental growth (in body or behavior) must happen if it is ever going to happen.


Example: When a human embryo grows it legs, hands, feet, fingers and toes between day 28- 54 after conception.

Written Answer: What is a Critical Period of Development and an example:

A time when a certain type of development is most likely to happen or happens most easily, although it may still happen later with more difficulty.


Example: Language in early child hood

Written Answer: What is a Sensitive Period of Development and an example:

A group of ideas, assumptions, and generalizations that interpret and illuminate the thousands of observations that have been made about human growth. A developmental theory provides a framework for explaining the patterns and problems of development

Written Answer: What is a Developmental Theory?

1. Psychoanayltic Theory: Awareness of unconscious motivation and the importance of early experiences on development.


2. Behaviorism: A learning theory that only focuses on objectively observable behaviors and discounts any independent activities of the mind. Behavior theorists define learning as nothing more than the acquisition of new behavior based on environmental conditions.


3. Cognitive Theory: Concerned with the development of thought processes and how these thought processes influence our understanding of the world around us.


4. Sociocultural Theory: Awareness of circumstances surrounding individuals and how their behaviors are affected specifically by their surrounding, social and cultural factors.


5. Universal Theories:


Humanism: focuses on humans and their values, capacities, and worth


Evolutionary: process by which organisms change over time as a result of changes in heritable physical or behavioral traits

Written Answer: Name and briefly describe 5 Theories of Human Development:

Classical: The learning process in which a meaningful stimulus (such as the smell of food to a hungry animal) is connected with a neutral stimulus (such as the sound of a tone) that had no special meaning before conditioning


Operant: The learning process by which a particular action is followed by something desired (which makes the person or animal more likely to repeat the action) or by something unwanted (which makes the action less likely to be repeated)

Written Answer: Describe Classical and Operant Conditioning:

Monozygotic: Twins who originate from one zygote that splits apart very early in development. (Also called identical twins.) Other monozygotic multiple births (such as triplets and quadruplets) can occur as well


Dizygotic: Twins who are formed when two separate ova are fertilized by two separate sperm at roughly the same time. (Also called fraternal twins.)

Written Answer: Explain Monozygotic and Dizygotic Twins:

An organism's entire genetic inheritance, or genetic potential


Example: Blood Type

Written Answer: What is a genotype and an example:

The observable characteristics of a person, including appearance, personality, intelligence, and all other traits


Example: Height

Written Answer: What is a Phenotype and an example:

1. Germinal Period: The first two weeks of prenatal development after conception, characterized by rapid cell division and the beginning of cell differentiation


2. Embryonic Period: The stage of prenatal development from approximately the third through the eighth week after conception, during which the basic forms of all body structures, including internal organs, develop


3. Fetal Period: The stage of prenatal development from the ninth week after conception until birth, during which the fetus gains about 7 pounds (more than 3,000 grams) and organs become more mature, gradually able to function on their own

Writte Answer: Describe the Prenatal Development including Time Periods:

A cluster of birth defects, including abnormal facial characteristics, slow physical growth, and reduced intellectual ability, that may occur in the fetus of a woman who drinks alcohol while pregnant

Written Answer: Explain Fetal Alcohol Syndrome(FAS)