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136 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Learning
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The acquisition of information or a behavioral tendency that is retained for a relatively long period of time. Two types: Associative and Non-Associative.
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Non-Associative
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Occurs when repeated exposure to the same stimulus alters how you respond to that stimulus; single stimulus.
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Habituation
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Decreases responding; ex. Noise; like a siren going off every wednesday @ 12
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Sensitization
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Increased responding; ex. Noticing every time a Valley girl says like
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Classical Conditioning
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A type of learning that occurs when a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a stimulus that causes a reflexive behavior. Over time, that neutral stimulus is able to elicit that behavior by itself.
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Unconditioned Stimulus (US)
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A stimulus that elicits an automatic response without requiring prior learning.
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Unconditioned Response (UR)
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An automatic response elicited by an unconditioned stimulus.
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Neutral Stimulus (NS)
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A stimulus that does not elicit a response.
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Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
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An originally neutral stimulus that comes to produce a response evoked by a US after it has been paired enough times with the US.
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Conditioned Response (CR)
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Response originally evoked only by the US, but the CS can evoke it alone after the CS has been paired enough times w/ US
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Law of Effect
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If a response is followed by a pleasurable consequence, it will be repeated. If a response is followed by an unpleasant consequence, it will not be repeated. (Puzzle Box)
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B.F. Skinner
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Expanded our understanding of operant conditioning; made the Skinner Box, Air Crib, and "Heir Conditioner."
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Reinforcement
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Any consequence of a behavior that makes the behavior MORE likely to occur in the future.
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Positive Reinforcement
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Occurs when a desired object or event is presented after a response, increasing the likelihood of that response in the future.
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Negative Reinforcement
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Occurs when an unpleasant object or event is removed after a response, increasing the likelihood of that response in the future.
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Punishment
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Any consequence of a behavior that makes the behavior LESS likely to occur in the future.
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Positive Punishment
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Occurs when an unpleasant object or event is presented after a response, decreasing likelihood of that response in the future.
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Negative Punishment
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Occurs when a desired object or event is removed after a response, decreasing the likelihood of that response in the future.
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Immediate Reinforcement
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Reinforcement or punishment that occurs immediately after the behavior; immediacy helps connect the consequence with the correct behavior.
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Delayed Reinforcment
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Reinforcement or punishment that occurs some time after the behavior; much less effective
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Primary Reinforcer
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An event or object that is inherently reinforcing; ex. food, water, comfort, relief of pain, etc
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Secondary Reinforcer
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An event or object that is not inherently reinforcing, but instead has acquired its reinforcing value through learning; ex. money, grades, etc
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Forward Conditioning
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Conditioning that occurs when the CS occurs before the US.
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Backward Conditioning
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Conditioning that occurs when the CS occurs after the US.
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Simultaneous Conditioning
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Conditioning that occurs when the CS and US occur at the same time.
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Learning: Extinction
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Process by which a CR is gradually extinguished through repeated presentation of the CS without the US.
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Learning: Spontaneous Recovery
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The event that occurs when the CS again elicits the CR after extinction has occurred.
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Stimulus Generalization
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A tendency for the CR to be elicited by neutral stimuli that are similar, but not identical to the CS.
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Stimulus Discrimination
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The ability to distinguish among stimuli that are relatively similar to the CS and to respond only to the actual CS.
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Conditioned Emotional Responses
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An emotionally charged conditioned response elicited by a previously neutral stimulus. Ex. Little Albert
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Primary Reinforcer
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An event or object that is inherently reinforcing; ex. food, water, comfort, relief of pain, etc
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Secondary Reinforcer
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An event or object that is not inherently reinforcing, but instead has acquired its reinforcing value through learning; ex. money, grades, etc
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Forward Conditioning
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Conditioning that occurs when the CS occurs before the US.
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Backward Conditioning
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Conditioning that occurs when the CS occurs after the US.
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Simultaneous Conditioning
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Conditioning that occurs when the CS and US occur at the same time.
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Learning: Extinction
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Process by which a CR is gradually extinguished through repeated presentation of the CS without the US.
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Learning: Spontaneous Recovery
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The event that occurs when the CS again elicits the CR after extinction has occurred.
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Stimulus Generalization
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A tendency for the CR to be elicited by neutral stimuli that are similar, but not identical to the CS.
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Stimulus Discrimination
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The ability to distinguish among stimuli that are relatively similar to the CS and to respond only to the actual CS.
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Conditioned Emotional Responses
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An emotionally charged conditioned response elicited by a previously neutral stimulus. Ex. Little Albert- white rat exp.
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Conditioned Taste Aversions
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Chemotherapy
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Phobias
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Irrational fears of specific objects or situations.
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Conditioned Compensatory Responses
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Changes your body makes in preparation for the reactions to a particular drug.
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Preparedness
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Built-in readiness for certain neutral stimuli to elicit particular conditioned responses.
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Contra-preparedness
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Built-in disinclination for certain neutral stimuli to elicit particular conditioned responses.
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Operant Conditioning: Extinction
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The fading out of a response after a reinforcement ceases. When the reinforcement stops, the organism will temporally increase the frequency of the behavior in an attempt to receive the reinforcement.
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Operant Conditioning: Generalization
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Ability to transfer a learned stimulus-response association to a new stimulus that is similar to the original one.
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Operant Conditioning: Discrimination
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Ability to respond only to a particular stimulus and not to a similar one.
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Continuous Reinforcement
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Reinforcement given after every desired response. Ex: a coke machine
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Partial Reinforcement
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Reinforcement given only intermittently after desired responses.
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Fixed Interval Schedule
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Reinforcement given for responses only when they are produced after a fixed interval of time.
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Variable Interval Schedule
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Reinforcement given for responses produced after a variable interval of time.
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Fixed Ratio Schedule
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Reinforcement given for responses produced after a fixed # of responses.
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Variable Ratio Schedule
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Reinforcement given after a variable # of responses. Ex: a slot machine.
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Shaping
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Gradual process of reinforcing an animal for responses that get closer to the desired response. Called "successive approximations." Ex: Dog training
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Problems with Punishment
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- Only prevents behavior when authority is present
- Can cause negative feelings towards punisher - Habituation requires punishment to increase - Observational learning of aggressive behaviors |
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Reinforcement vs. Punishment
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- Reinforcement is a much more effective way of modifying behavior than punishment.
- Punishment is much easier to apply, but has several problems. |
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Token Economy
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-EX: Stickers children get at the doctors office; THEN, once they have 5 stickers, they get a prize
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Project ORCON
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Point= to create pigdon guided missels
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Classical vs. Operant Conditioning
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- Classical: Stimulus causes a response.
- Operant: You already have a response. |
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Fixed Interval Schedule
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Reinforcement given for responses only when they are produced after a fixed interval of time.
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Variable Interval Schedule
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Reinforcement given for responses produced after a variable interval of time.
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Fixed Ratio Schedule
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Reinforcement given for responses produced after a fixed # of responses.
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Variable Ratio Schedule
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Reinforcement given after a variable # of responses. Ex: a slot machine.
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Shaping
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Gradual process of reinforcing an animal for responses that get closer to the desired response. Called "successive approximations." Ex: Dog training
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Problems with Punishment
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- Only prevents behavior when authority is present
- Can cause negative feelings towards punisher - Habituation requires punishment to increase - Observational learning of aggressive behaviors |
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Reinforcement vs. Punishment
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- Reinforcement is a much more effective way of modifying behavior than punishment.
- Punishment is much easier to apply, but has several problems. |
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Token Economy
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-EX: Stickers children get at the doctors office; THEN, once they have 5 stickers, they get a prize
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Project ORCON
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Point= to create pigdon guided missels
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Classical vs. Operant Conditioning
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- Classical: Stimulus causes a response.
- Operant: You already have a response. |
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Cognitive Learning
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The acquisition of information that may not be acted on immediately but is stored for later use. Ex: Study for a test
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Latent Learning
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A specific type of cognitive learning that occurs without behavioral indicators. Ex: How to drive a car
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Social Learning Theory
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Idea that learning often occurs in social contexts.
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Observational Learning
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Learning that occurs through watching others, not through reinforcement. No reinforcement is the KEY here.
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Modeling
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The process in which other people function as models, presenting behavior to be imitated. Ex: Bobo Doll experiment
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Sensory Memory
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A memory state that holds a lot of perceptual information for a very brief time (1 second). Two types: Iconic & Echoic
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Iconic
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Visual perceptual information
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Echoic
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Auditory perceptual information
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Short-Term Memory
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A memory state that holds relatively little information for only a few seconds. Somewhere between 8-30 seconds.
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Rehearsal
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Process of repeating information over and over to retain it in ones short-term memory.
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Working Memory
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A memory system that operates on information in short-term memory to plan and reason. 3 parts: Central executive, visuo-spatial sketchpad, and phonological loop
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Central Executive
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A set of processes that transforms and interprets information in the two STMs when you plan, reason, or solve a problem.
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Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad
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One of the two STMs that holds visual or spatial patterns.
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Phonological Loop
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The second of the two STMs that holds pronounceable sounds.
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Long-Term Memory
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A memory state that holds a huge amount of information for a long time; unlimited capacity
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Encoding
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The process of organizing and transforming incoming info. so that it can be stored in the memory.
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Code
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A particular method for specifying information; the more ways this is done to something, the easier it will be to retrieve from the memory later.
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Serial Position Effects
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The position of an item in a list affects how well you will remember it; Primacy & Recency Effects
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Primacy Effect
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Increased memory for the first few stimuli in a set
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Recency Effect
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Increased memory for the last few stimuli in a set
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Consolidation
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Process of converting info. stored dynamically into a structural change in the brain. Two types: Dynamic & Structural
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Dynamic Memory
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Memories that depend on continuing neural activity.
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Structural Memory
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Memories that no longer require neural activity; stored by connections among neurons.
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Intentional Learning
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Learning that occurs as a result of trying to learn.
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Incidental Learning
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Learning that occurs without the intention to learn.
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Depth of Processing
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The # and complexity of the mental operations used when processing information.
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Breadth of Processing
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Processing that organizes and integrates new info. into previously stored info.; elaborative encoding.
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Storage
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Process of retaining information.
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Retrieval
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Process of accessing info. stored in the memory.
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Modality-Specific Memory
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A memory store that retains input from a single perceptual system (visual or auditory) or from a specific processing system (language); memories from different of THESE are stored in different areas
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Explicit Memory
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Memories that can be retrieved voluntarily and brought into STM; also called declarative memories. 2 parts: Semantic and Episodic Memory
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Semantic Memory
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Memories of the meanings of words, concepts, and general facts about the world. Ex: "The sky is blue."
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Episodic Memory
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Memories of events that are associated with a particular time, place, and circumstance. Ex: Your sweet 16
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Implicit Memory
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Memories that can not be retrieved voluntarily, but rather predispose a person to process info or behave in certain ways; also called non-delclarative memory. One type: Procedural Memory
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Procedural Memory
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Memory for how to do things. Ex: How to ride a bike.
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Controlled Processing
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Processing that requires paying attention to each step of a task and using working memory to coordinate the steps. Relies on EXPLICIT memory.
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Automatic Processing
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Processing that allows you to carry out a sequence of steps without having to pay attention to each one or to the relations between the steps. Relies on IMPLICIT memory.
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Recall
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The act of intentionally bringing explicit info to awareness.
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Recognition
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The acts of successfully matching an encoded stimulus to info about the stimulus that was previously stored in memory.
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Cues
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Stimuli, thoughts, or feelings that trigger or enhance remembering.
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State-Dependent Retrieval
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Idea that info tends to be better remembered if recall or recognition is attempted in the same psychological state as when the info was 1st encoded.
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Context-Dependent Retrieval
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Idea that info tends to be better remembered if recall or recognition is attempted in the same context as when the info was 1st encoded.
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Classical Conditioning: Acquisition
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Refers to the first stages of learning when a response is established. Here, it refers to the period of time when the stimulus comes to evoke the conditioned response.
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Operant Conditioning: Acquisition
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Initial stage of learning a new pattern of behavior.
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Forgetting
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Failure to remember; occurs in many ways: decay, interference, amnesia, processing failures, and monitoring failures.
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Decay
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The loss of memories over time because the relevant connections among neurons are lost. NOT main cause.
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Encoding Failures
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Occurs when info is not processed well enough to fully enter into LTM.
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Retrieval Failures
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Occurs when the retrieval cues aren't strong enough to properly identify the appropriate info.
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Source Monitoring Errors
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Occurs when you incorrectly determine the source of a memory.
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Reality Monitoring Errors
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Occurs when you incorrectly determine whether a memory was from reality or your imagination.
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Retroactive Interference
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Occurs when new learning disrupts memory for something learning earlier.
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Proactive Interference
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Occurs when info already stored in memory makes it difficult to learn something new.
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Retrograde Amnesia
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- Disrupts previous memories
- Retrieval Failure |
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Anterograde Amnesia
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- Prevents the storing of new information
- Leaves consolidated memories intact - Encoding Failure |
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Intentional Forgetting
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Forgetting which is initiated by a conscious goal to forget; can influence encoding of info, but not the retrieval.
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False Memories
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Recollection of an event, or the details of an event, that didn't occur.
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Repressed Memories
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Most recovered memories turn out to be false. Ex: Murder, Alien abduction, etc.
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Forgetting Curve
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Herman Ebbinghaus (1850-1909)
- Memorized lists of nonsense syllables to 100% - Tested his memory @ various intervals - Found that most forgetting occurs within the 1st 20 mins. after you've learned something, and after 24 hours, forgetting is relatively minimal. |
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Chunking
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Mostly useful for memorizing lists.
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Hierarchical Organization
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Organizing a chunk of words into specific categories to help you remember them.
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Thinking About It...
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- Compare & Contrast
- Create examples |
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Distributed Practice
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-Each time you encode the info, you create new retrieval cues, making the memory stronger.
- Also associates the info with multiple contexts and multiple states to help improve retrieval. |
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Pegword System
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- My Very Eager Mother Just Served Us Nine Pizzas
- Every Good Boy Does Fine |
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Interactive Images
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Ex: If you want to remember a dog and a bike, imagine a dog RIDING a bike.
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Acronyms
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- ROY G. BIV
- FOIL - PEMDAS |
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Method of Loci
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Grass, Elephant, Sponge, Apple, Librarian example
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