Psych 102 Midterm

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What is psychology *

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- The Scientific study of behavior and mental processes
- Scientific study of how people think (cognition) feel (emotion), and act (behavior).
We describe, explain, predict control

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Therapy Outcome #1Suzy has anxietyScores an 8/10 on an anxiety test (assume this test is accurate)Participates in 8 weeks of Anxiety reduction Mental reprogramming Therapy?Scores 4/10 on an anxiety test?Did the therapy work?

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One reason we don’t know is because external variables could have an effect

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First school of psychology

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Structuralism, which explored basic elements of mind using introspection. Unreliable.

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Second school of psychology

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Functionalism, focused on mental and bahvioral processes that enable the the organism to adapt and survive.

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Freudian Psychology focused on:

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Unconscious thought processes and our emotional responses to childhood experienced affect our behavior.

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Behaviour

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Any action that we can observe and record.

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In the earliest days, psychology was defined as:

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Science of mental life

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This historical roots of psychology include the fields of:

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biology and philosophy.

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The enduring behaviours, idea, attitudes, values, and traditions of a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next defines the group's:

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Culture

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*Psychologists work from three main levels of analysis:

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Biological, psychological, and social-cultural which form biopsychological approach.

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Psychologists who study how natural selection influences behaviour:

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Evolutionary psychologists

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Study concerned with relative influences and genes and environment on individual differences:

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Behavior Genetics.

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Psychologists that believe behaviour springs from unconscious drives and conflicts work from the:

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Psychodynamic perspective.

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Psychologits who study mechanism by which observable responses are acquired work from the:

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Behavioral perspective.

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How we encode, process, store, and retrieve information

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Cognitive

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Psychologitsts who study how thinking and behaviour vary in different situations are working from the:

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Social-cultural perspective.

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Psychologists who help people cope with problems in living are called:

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counciling psychologists

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Psychologists who study, assess, and treat troubled people are called:

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Clinical psychologists

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Th disguised effects of unfulfilled wishes and childhood traumas:

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Psychodynamic perspective.

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Basic research

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Pure science that aims to increase psychology's scientific knowledge base rather than solve practical problems.

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Applied research

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Study aims to solve practical problems.

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Hindsight Bias*

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Tendency to perceive an outcome that has occurred as being obvious and predictable.

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Critical Thinking*

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Encourages reasoning that examines assumptions, appraises the sources, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.

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Theory*

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An explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and implies testable predictions.

* Your belief is the theory, your research predictions are the hypothesis.

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Hypothesis*

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The testable predictions that allow a scientist to evaluate a theory.

A testable prediction to enable us to keep, reject, or revise the theory.

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Psychologists conduct research using:

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Descriptive correlations and experimental methods.

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Correlation coefficient*

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The statistical measure of the relationship between two things. -1 to +1

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Regression towards the mean

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The illusion that we can control uncontrollable events is also fed by the tendency for unusual events (including emotions) to return to their average state, a statistical phenomenon.

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Operational definition:

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Carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in the research study

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* Scatterplot

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A depiction of the relationship between two variables by the means of a graphed cluster of dots.

* Graph comprised of points that are generated by values of two variables.Slope -depicts directionScatter -depicts the strength of the relationship.

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Experimental group

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Participants are exposed to the independent variable being studied.

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Control group

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Treatment of interest or independent variable is withheld.

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*Random Assignment/Random sampling/unbiased sample:

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Procedure of assigning participants to the experimental and control condition by chance, thus minimizing the preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups.

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*Double-blind procedure:

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An experimental procedure in which both the experimenter and research participant are blind about whether the research participants have received the treatment or placebo. Prevents expectations.

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Confirmation Bias*

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Mother of all Biases. We attend to what we agree with and ignore what we don't.

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Phrenology

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Bogus study of how skull shape effects intellect.

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Research Process

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Theories --> Hypothesis --> Research and Observations --> Generate /redefine.

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Two outcomes of scientific method

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1)Inaccurate beliefs are gradually discredited and gradually replaced by more accurate beliefs, OR2)We don’t have the methods or technology to study and make progress in a certain

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* Construct vs. Operational Definition

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•Construct –What is being measured?•Operational Definition –How are you measuring it?

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*Three basic types of scientific study:

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Descriptive Correlational Experimental (Quasi-Experimental)

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*Descriptive studies:

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Purpose: Careful and accurate description Questionnaires and Interviews Naturalistic Observation Case Studies

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*Correlation:

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Purpose: Evaluating relationships.

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*indicate what each symbol means: r= +.032

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r= correlation coefficient

+/1 = direction of relationship

.032= indicates strength of relationship.

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* Positive scatterplot & Negative scatterplot

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P: Graph goes up from bottom left to top right.

N: Graph goes down from top left to bottom right.

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Experimentation:

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Examines cause and effect.

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*Two main purposes of statistics

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Descriptive and inferential

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How to describe statistic data:

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1)Measures of Central Tendency2)Measures of Variation

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*Normal distribution

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Mean (average) and Median (middle number) are the same.

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*Skewed distribution

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Mean and median are different.

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Range:

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The difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution.

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Standard deviation

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A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean.

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Standard Deviation (Conceptual Definition)

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the average amount by which a score deviates from the mean

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*Making Inferences

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A statistical statement of how frequently a result in a study could occur by chance

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* With inferences, when is an observed difference reliable:

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1.Larger samples2.Larger mean difference (or correlational relationship)3.Less variability

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*When is a Difference “Significant”?

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When statistically the observed difference is unlikely to happen by chance(alpha level of .05, p< .05)

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*Personality

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An individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting.

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Psychodynamic view

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View human behaviour as a dynamic interaction between the conscious and unconscious minds. They stress the importance of childhood experience.

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*Unconscious

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In Freud theory it is the reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories.

In contemporary psychology, it is the level of information processing of which we are unaware.

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Free Association

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The Freudian technique in which the person is encouraged to say what ever comes to mind as means of exploring the unconscious

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*ID

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In Freud theory, it is the unconscious system of personality, consisting of basic sexual and aggressive drives, that supplies energy to personality. It operates on the pleasure principle.

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*EGO

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In Freud theory, the ego is largely conscious, "executive" division of personalty that attempts to mediate among the demands of the id, the superego, and reality. It operates on the reality principle.

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Superego

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In Freud theory, it is the division of personality that represents internalized ideals provides standards for judgment.

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Freud's Psychosexual stages

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Developmental periods children pass through during which the id's pleasure-seeking energies are focused on different erogenous zones.

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Oedipus complex 7 electra complex.

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Oedpipus: Boys in phallic stage develop a collection of feelings that center on the sexual attraction of the mother and resentment of the father.

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Freud's identification

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The process by which the child's superego develops and incorporates the parents' values. Crucial to what psychologists now call gender identity.

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Fixation

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In Freud theory it occurs when development becomes arrested, due to unresolved conflicts, i the early psychosexual stage.

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Defense mechanisms

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Ego's methods of unconsciously protecting itself against anxiety by distorting reality.

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* Repression

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The unconscious exclusion of anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories.

* banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness.

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*Collective unconscious

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Concept of an inherited unconscious shared by all people.

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* Projective tests.

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Such as the Rorschach, present ambiguous stimuli onto which people supposedly project their own inner feelings.

*Problems

1.Reliability -consistency2.Validity -accuracy

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* Thematic Appeciationg Test (TAT)

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Is a projective test in which people express their inner feelings and interests through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes.

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* Rorchach inkblot test

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Most widely used projective test, which consists of 10 inkblots that people are asked to interpret.

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Terror-management theory

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Focuses on people's emotional and behavioural responses to reminders of their mortality.

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* Humanist Theories

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Focuses on potential for healthy personal growth.

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*Self-Actualization

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Describes the process of fulfilling one's potential an becoming spontaneous, loving, creative, and self-accepting. Only becomes active after the more basic physical and psychological needs have been met.

*Process of fulfilling human potential.

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*Unconditional positive regard

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An attitude of total acceptance toward another person.

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Self-concept

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Refers to one's personal awareness of "who I am".

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*Trait

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A characteristic pattern of behavior or a disposition to feel and act.

* Stable over time.

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Personality inventories

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Associated with the trait perspective, are questionnaires used to assess personality traits.

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*Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)

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Consists of 10 clinical scales. Most widely researched and clinically used personality inventory.

* empirically derived.

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Empirically derived test

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One developed by testing many items to see which best distinguish between groups of interest.

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Social-cognitive perspective

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Behavior is the result of interactions between people's traits (excluding their thinking) and heir social context.

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Reciprocal determinism

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What personality is shaped through according to the social-cognitive perspective.

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Self

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The organizer of out thoughts, feelings, anf actions.

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Spotlight effect

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Tendency of people to overestimate the extent to which other people are noticing and evaluating their appearance, performance, and blunder.

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Self- esteem

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refers to an individuals feeling of self-worth

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self-efficacy

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One's sense of competence

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Self-serving bias

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The tendency to perceive oneself favorably.

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Narcissism

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Excessive self-love

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*Social Psychology

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The scientific study of how we think about, influence, and related one another.

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*Attribution Theory

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-we have a tendency to give causal explanations for someone’s behaviour,-often by crediting either the situation or the person’s disposition

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Fundamental Attribution Error

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The tendency to overestimate the impact of personal disposition, and underestimate the impact of the situations in explaining the behaviors of others

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*Self-serving bias

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People take credit for success, and deny responsibility for failure.

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Attitude

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A belief and feeling that predisposes a person to respond in a particular way to objects, other people, and events.

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Foot-in-the-Door Phenomenon:

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The tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request.

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*Cognitive Dissonance Theory

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To relieve ourselves of this tension, we bring our attitudes closer to our actions

•we strive to reduce dissonance when one of our cognitions conflicts with another one of our cognitions or behaviors•dissonance: discomfort from conflict of opposing thoughts

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Peripheral route persuasion

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Occurs when people are influenced by more superficial and incidental cues, such as a speaker's appearance.

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Central route persuasion

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Occurs when people respond favorably to arguments as a result of engaging in systematic thinking about an issue.

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Role

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A set of explanations (norms) about how people in a specific social position should behave.

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Conformity

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The tendency to change one's thinking or behavior to coincide with a group standard

* reasons for conformity: Normative Social Influence & Informative Social Influence.

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Normative Social Influence

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Refers to the pressure of on individuals to conform to avoid rejection or gain social approval.

* Based on the 'norm' of a group. Pressure to behave acceptable to the group standard.

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Informative social influence

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Results when one is willing to accept others' opinions about reality.

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*Social facilitation

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is stronger performance of simple or well-learned tasks that occurs when other people are present.

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*Social loafing

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is the tendency for individual effort to be diminished when one is part of a group working toward a common goal.

* The tendency of an individual in a group to exert less effort toward attaining a common goal than when tested individually

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*Deindividuation

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refers to the loss of self-restraint and self-awareness that sometimes occurs in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity.

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*Group Polarization

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Refers to the enhancement of a group's prevailing tendencies through discussion, which often has the effect of accentuating the group's differences from other groups.

*Polarize- contrasting positions.

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Groupthink

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Unrealistic though processes and decision making that occur within groups when the desire for group harmony overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives.

ex.) JFK and lobby thinking they can exterminate Fidel Castro.

- Think team spirit.

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Prejudice

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An unjustifiable (and usually negative) attitude toward a group and its members.

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Stereotype

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Generalized (sometimes accurate) belief about a group of people.

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Discrimination

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Unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group and its members.

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*Just-world Phenomenon

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Manifestation, of the commonly held belief that good is rewarded and evil is punished/ people get what they deserve.

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*Ingroup

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Refers to the people and groups with whom we share a common identity.

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*Outgroup

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Refers to the people and groups that excluded from our ingroup.

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*Ingroup bias

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Tendency to favor ones own group

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*Scapegoat Theory

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Proposes that prejudice provides an outlet for anger by finding someone to blame.

*Displaying anger on innocent others.

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Other-race effect/ Cross-race effect/ own-race bias

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Our tendency to recall the faces of our own race more accurately that those of other races.

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Aggression

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Any physical or verbal behavior INTENDED to hurt or destroy.

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Frustration-aggression principle

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States that aggression is triggered when people become angry because their efforts to achieve a goal have been blocked.

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Social Script

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Culturally specific model of how to behave in various situations.

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The mere exposure effect

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Fact that repeated exposure to an unfamiliar stimulus increases out liking to it.

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*Passionate Love

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An aroused state of intense positive absorption in another person, especially at the beginning of a relationship.

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*Companionate Love

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Deep, enduring, affectionate attachment to those with whom we share our lives.

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Equity

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The condition in which there is mutual giving and receiving between the partners in a relationship.

*#1 factor to stay together.

# 2 factor is Self-Disclosure.

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Self-disclosure

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Person's revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others.

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Altruism

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Unselfish regard for the welfare of others.

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Bystander Effect

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Tendency of a person to be less likely to offer help to someone if there are other people present.

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Social Exchange Theory

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States that our social behavior revolves around exchanges, in which we try to minimize our costs and maximize our benefits.

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Reciprocity Norm

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The expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them.

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Social-responsibility Norm

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The expectation that people will help those who depend on them.

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Conflict

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perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas between individuals or groups.

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Social Trap

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Situation in which conflicting parties become caught in mutually destructive behaviors because each persists in pursuing self-interest.

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Mirror-image perceptions

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The negative mutual views that conflicting people often hold about one another.

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Self-fulfilling prophecy

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Belief that leads to own fulfillment.

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Superordinate goals

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Mutual goals that require the cooperation of individuals or groups otherwise in conflict.

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GRIT

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(Graduated and Reciprocated Initiatives in Tension) is a strategy of conflict resolution based o the defusing effect that conciliatory gestures can have on parties in conflict.

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Obedience is highest when:

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1.authority figure was salient2.authority figure had prestige3.victim was depersonalized4.no models for defiance

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Components of Prejudice.

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1.Beliefs (stereotypes)2.Emotions (hostility, envy, fear)3.Predisposition to act(to discriminate)

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Has prejudice improved?

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16% of Canadians don’t support marriages of people by different ethnic backgrounds60% of Europeans say immigrants are a bad influence on their countryBlack motorists are disproportionately pulled over

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* Cognitive Roots of Prejudice

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One way we simplify our world is to categorize.We categorize peopleinto groups by stereotyping them.

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*Implicit Association Test (IAT)

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White respondents take longer to identify a pleasant word (peace, paradise) as “good” when paired with black faces rather than white faces

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Biological influences of aggression

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1.Genetic2.Neural3.Biochemical
Biological influences, Psychological influences, social-cultural influences.

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*What predicts attraction?

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1.)Proximity/Mere exposure effect

2.) Physical attractiveness

* Seen as happier, healthier, more sensitive, more successful, more socially skilledNot more honest or compassionate

3.) Similarity

Attitudes, beliefs, interests, age, religion, ethnicity, education, intelligence, smoking behaviour, economic status

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Two-factor theory of emotion (Passionate Love)

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1.Physical/emotional arousalplus
2.Cognitive appraisal of arousal (NTERPRETATION OF WHY YOU FEEL THIS WAY.)

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Why do we help?

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1.) Social Exchange
2.) TheoryReciprocity norm
3.) Social-responsibility norm

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How to Make Peace?

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1.) Superordinate goals –shared goals that override differences and require cooperation
2.) 2.Communication –understanding through talking to one another

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Stanley Milgram Studied?

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The effects of authority on obedience.

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THE GAME OF SOCIAL TRAP

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Both choose A both get $5One person chooses A and other choose B, the person who chose B gets $10 and person who choose A loses $5Both end up choosing B then both get $0If people communicated both would get $5.

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THE BIG FIVE FACTORS

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** Most widely studied and most popular. Lots of research support.** Our best guess at the fundamental traits of personality.Conscientiousness, Agreeableness, Neuroticism, Openness, Extraversion.***** CANOE

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Big Five Measures

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1.) Big Five Inventory (questionnaire)2.) NEO-PI (Questionnaire)3.) SIFFM (interview)

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Can be powerful predictions of short-term behaviour?

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Situations

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Can predict ‘average’ or ‘typical’ behaviour over long periods of time?

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Traits

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Intelligence*

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Mental potential to learn from experience, solve-problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations.

Class definition: Cognitive ability to learn, remember, and flexibly apply concepts to (understanding/engage with/manipulate) one’s environment to their advantage (survival/reproduction/ protect offspring).

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General intelligence

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According to Spearman and others, is a general intelligence factor that underlies each of the more specific mental abilities identified through factor analysis.

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Savant Syndrome

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Very low intelligence score, yet possesses one exceptional ability, for example, in music or drawing.

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*Emotional intelligence

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the ability to perceive, manage, understand, and use emotions.

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*Intelligence tests

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measure people's mental aptitudes and compare them with those of others, using numerical scores.

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*Achievement tests

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Measure a person's current knowledge.

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*Aptitude tests

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designed to predict future performance. Measure capacity to learn.

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Mental Age

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chronological age that most typically corresponds to a given level of performance.

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Stanford-Binet

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Lewis Terman's widely used revision of Binet's original intelligence test.

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*Intelligence quotient (IQ)

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was defined originally as the ratio of mental age to chronological age times 100. Contemporary tests assign scores of 100 to average performance for a given age and define other scores as deviations from this average.

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Wechsler Adult Intelligence Test (WAIS)

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The most widely used intelligence test. It is individually administered, contains 15 subtests, and yields separate scores for verbal comprehension, perceptual organization, working memory, and processing speed, as well as an overall intelligence score.

*  Overall intelligence Several sub-domains

Verbal Comprehension, Working Memory, Perceptual organization, Processing speed.

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Standardization

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Process of defining meaningful scores by comparison with a pretested standardization group.

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Normal Curve

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Bell-shaped curve that represents the distribution (frequency of occurrence) of many physical and psychological attributes. Symmetrical with most scores near the average and fewer near the extremes.

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Reliability

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Extent to which the test produces consistent results.

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Validity

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Degree to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to.

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Content Validity

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Test is the extent to which it samples the behavior that is of interest.

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Predictive Validity *

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The extent to which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to predict; also called criterion-related validity.

* Predictive validity – GPA, salary (moderately), ‘success’– high prestige occupations, life satisfaction?,

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Cohort

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A group of people from a given time period

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Crystallized intelligence

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Accumulated knowledge and verbal skills that come with education and experience.

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Fluid intelligence

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Ability to reason speedily and abstractly.

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Intellectual disability

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Two criteria that designate intellectual disability are an intelligence score of 70 or below

and adapting to normal demands of independent living.

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Down Sydrome.

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Result of an extra copy of chromosome 21.

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*Reaction Formation

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switches unacceptable impulses into their opposites.

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*Projection

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leads people to disguise their own threatening impulses by attributing them to others.

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Intelligence is an exercise in:

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– Scientific Thinking– Critical Thinking– Theory and Measure Development

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In research studies, intelligence is*

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Whatever the test measures.

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The error of thinking intelligence is a thing not a concept:

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Error of reification

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Would you rather be a Moron, Idiot, imbecile.

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Moron*

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Creativity

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the ability to produce ideas that are bothnovel and valuablecorrelates somewhat with intelligence

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Correlation of Brain Size and Intelligence

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About +.40

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3 principles of test construction

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Standardization, validity, reliability

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Standardized tests establish...

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a normal distributionof scores on a tested population.

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Flynn Effect

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In the past 60 years, intelligence scoreshave risen steadily by an average of27 points!

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When do intelligence scores become stable?

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After age 7.

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Intelligence is ___ heritable?

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60%