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146 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Memory |
-Information the brain receives, stores, and may retrieve for later use -Not completely understood, but a basic agreement on general processes involved |
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Memory Process |
-Encoding --Information enters the memory system -Storage --Preserving info for possible recollection in the future -Retrieval --Accessing info encoded and stored in memory |
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Sensory Memory |
-A stage of memory that captures near-exact copies of vast amounts of sensory stimuli for a very brief period of time. |
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Sperling's Iconic Memory Experiment |
-Flashed letters on a screen for a split second -Asked people to recall letters -Participates could only recall half of letters -Did it again -But at the end flashed a tone to indicate a row -Then people could recall |
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Iconic Memory |
Visual impressions that are photograph-like in their accuracy but dissolve in less than a second; a form of sensory memory |
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Echoic Memory |
-Exact copies of the sounds we hear; a form of sensory memory |
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Short Term Memory |
-A stage of memory that temporarily maintains and processes a limited amount of information |
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7+/-2 |
-Magic number -George Miller -Helps with short term memory -How many pieces of info your brain can intake |
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Chunking |
-Increases amount of info you can intake for short term memory -A piece of information -Grouping letters/numbers into a meaningful subsets |
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Phonological Loop |
-One of the central concepts of the working memory model. -Represents a brief store of mainly verbal info together with a rehearsal mechanism -Part of Baddeley's model for the working memory |
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Visuospatial Sketchpad |
-One of two passive slave systems in Baddeley's model of the working memory -Responsible for the manipulation and temporary storage of visual and spatial info. |
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Long Term Memory |
-A stage of memory with essentially unlimited capacity that stores enduring info about facts and experiences |
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Episodic Memory |
-The record of memorable experiences or "episodes" including when and where an experience occurred; a type of explicit memory |
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Semantic Memory |
-A memory of info theoretically available to anyone, which pertains to general facts about the world; a type of explicit memory |
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Procedural Memory |
-The unconscious memory of how to carry out a variety of skills and activities; a type of implicit memory |
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Flashbulb Memory |
-A detailed account of circumstances surrounding an emotionally significant or shocking, sometimes historic event |
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Disturbed Practice |
-Spreading out study sessions over time with breaks in between |
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Massed Practice |
-Studying for long period of time without breaks |
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Serial Position Effect |
-The ability to recall items in a list depends on where they are in the series -Easier to remember the beginning and end of the list |
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Primacy Effect |
-The tendency to remember items at the beginning of the list |
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Recency Effect |
-The tendency to remember items at the end of a list |
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Mnemonic |
-Technique to improve memory |
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Retrieval Cues |
-Stimuli that help in the retrieval of stored info that is difficult to access |
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Recall |
-The process of retrieving info held in long-term memory without the help of explicit retrieval cues |
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Recognition |
-The process of matching incoming data to information stored in long-term memory |
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Encoding Specificity Principal |
-Memories are more easily recalled when the context and cues at the time of encoding are similar to those at the time of retrieval |
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Implicit Memory |
-A memory of something you know or know how to do, but that might be automatic or unconscious; this type of memory is often difficult to bring to awareness and express |
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Retroactive Interference |
-The tendency for recently learned information to interfere with the retrieval of things learned in the past |
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Proactive Interference |
-The tendency for recently learned infor to interfere with the retrieval of things learned in the past |
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Anterograde Amnesia |
-A type of memory-loss; an inability to create new memories following damage or injury to the brain |
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Retrograde Amnesia |
-A type of memory loss; an inability to access memories formed prior to damage or injury to the brain, or difficulty retrieving them |
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Processing, Effort, and Improving Long-Term Memory |
-Visualization -Distinctiveness -Massed practice -Distributed practice |
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Method of Ioci |
-Mnemonic device in which person visualizes items to be learned with landmarks in some familiar place |
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Peg-Word Method |
-Form a visual images connecting to-be-remembered items with retrieval cues ("pegs") |
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Why do we forget? |
-Encoding failure --It never got into long-term memory |
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Tip of the Tongue |
-Retrieval failure |
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Misinformation Effect |
-Memories can be changed in response to new information -Eyewitness accounts can be altered by a variety of factors that follow an event to be recalled -Malleability of memory influences the recall of events |
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Schema |
-An organized cluster of information about a particular topic; useful in organizing and forming new memories |
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Script |
-A schema for the typical sequence of an everyday event;mental organization of events in time |
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False Memory |
-Subjective feelings that one is experiencing a genuine recollections, replete with sensory details, and even expressed with confidence and emotion even though the event never happened |
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Hippocampus |
-Essential for creating new explicit but not implicit memories -Explicit memories are processed and stored in other parts of the brain, including the temporal loves and areas of the frontal cortex -Plays a central role in laying down new memories but does not serve as the ultimate destination |
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Alzheimer's Disease |
-Progressive, devastating brain illness that causes cognitive decline, including memory, language, and thinking problems |
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Syntax |
-The collection of rules concerning where to place words or phases |
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Phoneme |
-The basic building blocks of spoken language |
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Morphemes |
-The fundamental units that bring meaning to language |
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Semantics |
-The rules used to bring meaning to words and sentences |
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Prototype |
-The ideal or most representative example of a natural concept; helps us categorize or identify specific members of a concept |
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Functional Fixedness |
-A barrier to problem solving that occures when familiar objects can only be imagined to function in their normal or usual way |
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Algorithm |
-An approach to problem solving using a formula or set of rules that, if followed, ensures a solution |
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Heuristics |
-Problem-solving approaches that incorporate a rule of thumb or broad application of a strategy |
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Means-End Analysis |
-Heuristic used to determine how to decrease the distance between a goal (the means) and the current status, leading to the solution of a problem (the end) |
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Insight |
-An understanding or solution that occurs in a sudden stroke of clarity (the aha! feeling) |
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Framing Effect |
-Occurs when the wording of questions or the context of a problem influences the outcome of a decision |
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Confirmation Bias |
-The tendency to look for evidence that upholds our beliefs and overlook evidence that runs counter to them |
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Representativeness Heuristic |
-A decision-making strategy used to evaluate the degree to which the primary characteristics of a person or situation are similar to our prototype of that type of person or situation |
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Availability Heuristic |
-A decision-making strategy that predicts the likelihood of something happening based on how easily a similar type of event from the past can be recalled |
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Triarchic Theory of Intelligence |
-Sternberg's theory suggesting that humans have varying degrees of analytical, creative, and practical abilities
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Aptitude |
-An individuals potential for learning |
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Achievement |
-Acquired knowledge, or what has been learned |
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Reliability |
-The ability of an assessment to provide consistent, reproduced results |
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Standardization |
-Occurs when test developers administer a test to a large sample and then publish the average scores for specified groups |
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Validity |
The degree to which an assessment measures what it intends to measure |
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Intelligence Quotient (IQ) |
-A score from an intelligence assessment; originally based on mental age divided by chronological age, multiplied by 100 |
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Gifted |
-Highly intelligent; defined as having an IQ score of 130 or above |
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Category |
-Class of objects that most people agree belong together |
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Family Resemblance View |
-Members of a category share certain core features, but not all members have to have all these features |
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Defining Features |
-Categories are defined by features that all members share |
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Natural Concepts |
-The mental representation of categories resulting from experiences in daily life |
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Hierarchies of Concepts |
-Super-ordinate --Broadest category;encompasses all objects in group -Mid-level --Basic level; general grouping most often used in everyday experiences -Subordinate --Narrow; Specific |
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Trial and Error |
-Process of finding solution through a series of attempts |
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Algorithms |
-Using a formula or set of rules that, if followed, ensures a solution |
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Heuristics |
-Incorporating a rule of thumb or broad application of a stategy |
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Intelligence |
-Ones innate ability to solve problems, adapt to environment, and learn from experiences |
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Psychometrics |
-Measuring the mind -Intelligence is a mental capacity that can be understood by analyzing performance on mental test |
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General Intelligence (g factor) |
-Spearnann speculated that humans have a singular underlying aptitude or intellectual ability |
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Sternberg's 3 Kinds of Intelligence |
-Analytic -Creative -Practical |
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Gardners Multiple Intelligence |
-Linguistic-talking -Logical-math -Musical-music -Spatial-art/navigation -Body Kinesthetic-dance -Interpersonal-relations with people -Intrapersonal-relations with self -Naturalistic-nature |
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Flynn Effect |
-IQ seems to be rising over time because of: -Better nutrition -Exposure to new technologies -Exposure to preschool or day care |
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Normal Curve |
-Depicts the frequency of values of a variable along a continuum; bell shaped symmetrical distribution, with the highest point reflecting the average score |
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Stereotype Threat |
-A psychological predicament in which you fear that you will be evaluated in terms of a negative stereotype about a group in which you belong; creates anxiety and self-doubt and cal lower performance in a particular domain that is important to you |
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Racial Differences in IQ scores |
-Group members in minorities may do poorly on the test not because of lower IQ but because unfamiliarity with the white, middle-class culture |
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Cultural Bias/Cultural Fair |
-Test reflect white middle-class cultrual knowledge and values -Cultural differences may be involved in test taking behavior |
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Two Factor Theory |
-Charles Spearman theory -g=general knowledge -s=specific intellectual abilities |
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Fluid Intelligence |
-Capacity to think logically and solve problems in novel situations, independent of acquired knowledge. -Ability to identify patterns and relationships that underpin novel problems and to extrapolate these findings using logic |
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Crystallized Intelligence |
-The ability to used learn knowledge and experience |
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Deviation IQ |
-Compares people of the same age or age category and assumes that the IQ is normally distributed. |
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Intellectual Disability |
-Below average intelligence and set of life skills present before age 18 -IQ of 70 or below |
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Labeling Effect |
-How self-identifying and behavior of individuals may be determined or influenced by the terms used to describe or label them |
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Anchoring |
-Cognitive bias that describes the common human tendency to rely too heavily on the first piece of info offered (the anchor) when making a decision |
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Analogies |
-A comparison between two things, typically on the basis of their structure and for the purpose of explanation or clarification |
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Exemplar |
-A person or thing serving as a typical example or excellent model |
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Language Development Milestones |
-Learn that a cry brings food, comfort, companion -Sort out speech sounds |
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Recoding |
-Process that lets you overcome the limited capacity of working (short term) memory. |
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Rehearsal |
-Repetition in the retention of memories -Repeating something over and over again in order to get the info processed as a memory |
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Elaboration |
-Strategy which involves assigning meaningful info to something you are trying to remember |
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State Dependent Memory |
-Phenomenon through which memory retrieval is most efficient when an individual is in the same state of consciousness as they were when the memory was formed |
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Transfer-Appropriate Processing (TAP) |
-Type of state-dependent memory specifically showing that memory performance is not only determined by the depth of processing but by the relationship it was retrieved |
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DRM list |
-Deese-Roediger-McDermott paradigm -Procedure in cognitive psychology used to study false memory in humans |
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Eidetic Memory |
-Ability to recall images, sounds, or objects in memory after only a few instances of exposure, with high precision for some time after exposure, without using mnemonics |
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Cryptomnesia |
-Occurs when a forgotten memory returns without it being recognized as such by the subject, who believes it is something new and original |
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Decay |
-Memory fades due to the mere passage of time |
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Repression |
-Memory of a traumatic event unconsciously retrained in the mind, where it is said to adversely affect conscious though, desire, and action. It is common to consciously repress unpleasant experiences |
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Hippocampus |
-Small organ located within the brain's medial temporal lobe and forms an important part of the limbic system, the region that regulates emotions. -Associated with long-term memory -Plays a role in spatial navigation |
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Amygdala |
-Two almond shaped groups of nuclei located deep and medially within the temporal lobes of the brain in complex vertebrates -Primary role in processing of memory, decision making, and emotional reactions -Part of the limbic system |
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Zygote |
-A singular cell formed by the union of a sperm cell and egg |
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Fetus |
-The unborn human from 2 months following conception to birth
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Genotype |
-An individuals complete collection of genes |
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Phenotype |
-The observable expression or characteristics of ones genetic inheritance |
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Teratogens |
-Environmental agents that can damage the growing zygote, embryo, or fetus |
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Cooing |
-Production of vowel-like sounds by infants, often repeated in a joyful manner |
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Babbling |
-The combining of consonants with vowels, typically displayed at the age of 4 to 6 months |
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Telegraphic Speech |
-Two word phrases typically used by infants around the age of 18 months |
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Puberty |
-The period of development during which the body changes and becomes sexually mature and capable of reproduction |
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Longitudinal Method |
-A research design that examines the same sample of people over a period of time to determine age-related changes |
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Cross-Sectional Method |
-A research design that examines groups of people of different ages at a single point in time |
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Schema |
-A collection of ideas that represent a basic unit of understanding |
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Assimilation |
-Using existing information and ideas to understand new knowledge and experiences |
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Accommodation |
A restructuring of old ideas to make a place for new information |
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Senorimotor Stage |
-Plaget's stage of cognitive development during which infants use thier sensory capabilities and motor skills to learn about the surrounding world -Birth to 2 years |
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Preoperational Stage |
-Plaget's stage of cognitive development during which children can starte to use language to explore and understand their worlds -2-7years |
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Concrete Operational Stage |
-Plaget's stage of cognitive development during which children begin to think more logically, but mainly in reference to concrete objects and circumstances |
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Objective Permanence |
-A milestone of the sensorimotor stage of cognitive development; an infant's realization that objects and people still exist even when out of sight or touch |
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Egocentrism |
-Being able to imagine the world only from one's own perspective |
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Conservation |
-Refers to the unchanging properties of volume, mass, or amount in relation to appearance |
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Formal Operational Stage |
-Plaget's stage of cognitive development during which children begin to think more logically and sysematcially |
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Attachment Types |
-Secure Attachment-upset when loved one leaves the room, but soothed quickly upon return -Avoidant Attachment-No distress when loved one leaves the room, no wanting of loved ones upon return Ambivalent-Wanting their loved ones, but could not be soothed by their loved ones |
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Temperament |
-Characteristic differences in behavioral patterns and emotional reactions |
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Prenatal Development |
-Conception -Zygote -Germinal period (first two weeks) -Embryonic period (weeks 3 through 8) -Fetal period (8 weeks-pregnancy) |
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Effects of Alcohol While Pregnant |
-Small head -Epicanthal folds -Flat midface -Smooth philtrum -Underdeveloped jaw -Low nasal bridge -Small eye opening -Short nose -Thin upper lip |
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Fetal Alcohol Syndrom |
-Delays in normal development that results from moderate to heavy alcohol use during pregnancy |
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Synaptic Pruning |
-Increase in neural connections is not uniform in brain -Unused synaptic connections eliminated -Decrease in neural connection by 40 to 50 percent by puberty |
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Motor Development |
-Rolling over (2-5) -Grasping (3-5) -Sitting without support (5-9) -Standing while holding on (5-10) -Standing alone well (10-14) -Walking well (10-15) -Building towers out of two cubes (12-20) -Walking up steps (14-22) |
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Formal Operational Thought |
-Children begin to think more logically and systematically, able to think in abstract terms |
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Scaffolding |
-Children are pushed to go just beyond what they are competent and capable of doing, while providing help in a decreasing manner |
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Dementia |
-Loss in mental functioning caused by physical changes in the brain |
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Neural connections with aging brain |
-Neurons die with age -Can continue to increase in complexity |
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Neurogenesis |
-The growth and development of nervous tissue |
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Plasticity |
-Quality of being easily shaped or molded |
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Cross-Sectional Study Design |
-Type of observational study that involves the analysis of data collected from a population, or a representative subset, at one specific point in time |
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Preference Technique |
-It is used to assess infants attention by displaying different visual patterns -The pattern the infant prefers will be the pattern for which it takes the longest amount of time for the infant to habituate to (lose interest) |
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Habituation |
-A form of learning in which an organism decreases or ceases to respond to a stimulus after repeated presentations |
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Piaget |
-Biologist who studied development of children's understanding |
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Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) |
-Difference between what a learner can do without help and what he or she can do with help |
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Strange Situation Test |
-Procedure to observe attachment relationships between a caregiver and a child |
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Erikson's Stages |
-Trust vs Mistrust -Autonomy vs Shame/Doubt -Initative vs. Guilt -Industry vs. Inferiority -Intimacy vs. Role confusion -Generality vs. Stagnation -Ego Integrity vs. Despair |
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Kubler-Ross's Model |
-Denial -Anger -Bargaining -Depression -Acceptence |
