Psyc 387 Chapter 8

Front 1

Describe Thorndike's work with observational learning in animals

Back 1

Thorndike found that there was not the slightest difference between the behavior of cats that had observed a successful model (of escaping a puzzle box) and those that had not. Concluded, “We should give up imitation as an a priori explanation of any novel intelligent performance”

Front 2

Define vicarious learning. Be able to cite and recognize original examples of vicarious learning

Back 2

Vicarious learning may be defined as a change in behavior due to the experience of observing a model. Also known as observational learning. Eg a monkey looks on as one of its peers lifts a cup, under which it finds a raisin. As a result, the observer lifts the cup and retrieves a raisin when given the opportunity.

Front 3

What is vicarious Pavlovian conditioning? What does the author conclude about its existence?

Back 3

Vicarious Classical Conditioning: Occurs when we learn to respond emotionally to a stimulus by observing another persons emotional reactions (Watching another person undergo Pavlovian conditioning and learning from our observations). Such “secondhand learning” affects feelings in many situations. In the case of the Mickey/Donald toy – the children never saw the toy paired with a shock or other US – therefore this is not vicarious conditioning.

Front 4

Describe Mineka and Cook's work in fear conditioning

Back 4

Mineka and Cook’s work in fear conditioning: Had six young monkeys with no fear of snakes look on as their wild-reared parents reacted with intense fear to snakes. After this experience, 5/6 monkeys reacted with intense fear of snakes themselves. This is not conditioning because the snake is not paired with a fearful stimulus.

Front 5

Describe the work of Warden and his colleagues in the vicarious operant learning of animals.

Back 5

Warden had a monkey observe another monkey tackle a problem in a chamber. The results showed clearly that the observers had benefited substantially from watching the model, often responding correctly on the very first trial.

Front 6

What is vicarious operant leaning?

Back 6

Comment: Vicarious reinforcement and vicarious punishment are types of vicarious learning procedures. In vicarious reinforcement, observing a model's behavior be rewarded increases the likelihood that the observer will engage in the modeled behavior. In vicarious punishment, observing a model's behavior be punished decreases the likelihood that the observer will engage in the modeled behavior. You can read examples of vicarious reinforcement and punishment in the description of the Rosekrans and Hartup (1967) study on pages 276-277. Also see Figure 8-8, which illustrates vicarious reinforcement and punishment.

Vicarious operant learning is when we observe someone undergo operant learning and learn from our observations.

Front 7

Be able to provide and recognize original examples of the following types of vicarious operant learning: (a) vicarious avoidance learning, (b) vicarious reinforcement, (c) vicarious punishment, and (d) vicarious accidental reinforcement (i.e., imitation of superstitious behavior).

Back 7

(a) Vicarious avoidance learning: Presley and Riopelle found that the observer monkeys reached the criterion in considerably fewer trials than the models required. Eg: watching someone avoid a shock by jumping to the other side of the box when the light comes on.
(b) Vicarious reinforcement: children who observed other children being praised for playing aggressively, would then also play aggressively. Whereas, those who saw aggressive behavior punished tended to play more peacefully.
(c) Vicarious punishment: One of the reasons society punishes criminals is to reduce the tendency of other people to commit the same crime.
(d) Vicarious accidental reinforcement: imitation of superstitious behavior.

Front 8

Provide and recognize original examples illustrating instances in which failure of imitation to occur does not mean that vicarious learning has not occurred

Back 8

The terms vicarious learning and imitation are sometimes used interchangeably, but they do not really refer to the same things. Vicarious learning means a change in behavior due to observing a model, but that may mean doing something very different from what the model does (picking candy from a different bowl).

Front 9

What is generalized imitation? Be able to provide and recognize examples of generalized imitation. Describe Baer and Sherman's (1964) study of generalized imitation. (pp. 280-281)

Back 9

Comment: As children, we acquire a generalized imitative repertoire, which consists of the ability to imitate all kinds of novel acts without reinforcement for each instance of imitation. This generalized imitation ability is very important in allowing children to expand their range of abilities. Simply observing a behavior can lead to acquiring that behavior. As the author emphasizes, there is a dark side to this ability, because both appropriate and inappropriate behaviors (e.g. drug use and aggression) can be acquired. This problem is compounded by the high frequency of negative behaviors in the media.
Baer and Sherman concluded that it is not only possible to reinforce the imitation of particular acts, but to reinforce a general tendency to imitate. They called this tendency generalized imitation. (Children were likely to imitate the fourth behavior that was not re-inforced.)

Front 10

Describe Bandura's social learning theory of vicarious learning

Back 10

Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory: Bandura argues that vicarious learning is accounted for by four processes: attentional, retentional, motor reproductive, and motivational.
(a) Attentional processes: studies have demonstrated that if the observer does not attend to the model, or attends to irrelevant aspects of the model’s behavior, little learning will take place.
(b) Retentional processes: These are acts the observer performs to aid recall of the model’s behavior – often in words. With the acquisition of language, it is often possible to reduce complex behavior to a few words.
(c) Motor reproductive processes: A child may watch a juggler, but is unlikely to imitate the behavior successfully without a good deal of practice.
(d) Motivational: The observer must have an expectation that an imitated behavior will produce reinforcement.
Problems: is it realistic to assume animals learn through the retentional processes described? Is it the expectation of reward that explains your behavio

Front 11

Cite and describe how each of the following conditions influence vicarious learning:
(a) consequences of the model's behavior

Back 11

(a) Consequences of the model’s behavior – reinforcement of the model’s behavior is clearly important. Consistent reinforcement/punishment is best. (Rosekrans and Hartup)

Front 12

Cite and describe how each of the following conditions influence vicarious learning:
(b) consequences of the observer's behavior

Back 12

(b) Consequences of the observer’s behavior – If observing others pays off, we tend to spend more time observing others. Once an animal had solved a problem, it never observed its partner’s efforts (Hirata and Morimura). One the other hand, if a chimp attempted the problem and failed, it then watched as its neighbor struggled with the problem.
An observer watches someone play a game successfully and enjoy it. If the observer is consistently unsuccessful, she is likely to abandon the game. Ultimately people usually do what works for them!

Front 13

Cite and describe how each of the following conditions influence vicarious learning:
, (c) characteristics of the model

Back 13

(c) Characteristics of the model – Numerous studies have demonstrated that human observers tend to learn more from models who are competent, attractive, likable, and prestigious than from models who lack these characteristics. Berger found greater learning took place when observers thought they had observed the assistant and not a fellow student.
Fisher and Harris: the more attentive an observer is to a model (eye patch/moodiness), the more likely he or she is to learn from the model’s behavior
Models who are attractive, powerful, or popular are much more likely to be imitated.

Front 14

Cite and describe how each of the following conditions influence vicarious learning:
(d) the observer's age

Back 14

young monkeys are more likely to imitate a model than are older monkeys (Adams-Curtiss & Fragaszy). However, adults generally learn more from observation

Front 15

Cite and describe how each of the following conditions influence vicarious learning:
(e) the observer's learning history

Back 15

(e) The observer’s learning history – a child whose aggressive behavior has been reinforced on numerous occasions is probably more likely to imitate an aggressive model than is a child with a different learning history. Adults may learn more than children from observing others because the adults have had more practice at it.

Front 16

Cite and describe how each of the following conditions influence vicarious learning:
(f) the emotional state of the observer

Back 16

(f) The emotional state of the observer – Warden and Jackson found that emotional arousal could severely interfere with learning.

Front 17

Cite and describe how each of the following conditions influence vicarious learning:
(g) modeled task complexity

Back 17

(g) Modeled task complexity – Complex tasks are not as readily picked up through observation as are simple tasks (Hirakawa & Nakazawa; Richman & Gholson)

Front 18

Miller and Dollard's reinforcement theory of vicarious learning

Back 18

The changes in an observer’s behavior are due to the consequences of the observer’s behavior, not those of the model.
(The younger boy learns that going to the door to greet Dad when big brother does pays off)
Why, if an observer receives reinforcement for imitating a model’s behavior, imitative acts occur even when the model is no longer present? We often continue to be influenced by a stimulus that is no longer present.
Why does imitation occur in the absence of reinforcement of the observer’s behavior? Such behavior may be due to generalized imitation.

Front 19

10. Describe the evidence indicating that animal foraging is influenced by vicarious learning, including Sherry and Galef's (1984) work with black-capped chickadees. (

Back 19

Sherry and Galef found that birds in the vicarious learning group opened the tubs while the untrained group did not. The researchers concluded that some birds probably do learn to open milk bottles by observing others do so.

Front 20

Describe the evidence indicating that crime and violence is influenced by vicarious learning, including Bandura's (1963) Rocky and Johnny study.

Back 20

There is a link between television viewing and criminal behavior. Eron found that the more time children spent watching tv at age 8, the more likely they were at age 30 to have been convicted of a serious crime and to be aggressive when under the influence of alcohol (strong correlations/not causations). Bandura’s study of nursery school kids watching a 5 min clip of Johnny vs Rocky

Front 21

Describe the use of vicarious learning principles in treating phobias. Provide and recognize original examples of participant modeling. (pp. 295-297)

Back 21

One technique for helping people overcome phobias is to have them observe models that interact with the feared object without ill effects. Mary Cover Jones called it the “method of social imitation”
Participant modeling: the observer first watches as the model performs the desired act, then the model guides the observer through the same behavior.