Psyc 324 Applied

Front 1

Ergonomics

Back 1

looks at better ways to interact with machines to empower people

Front 2

Human Factors

(concerned with: 4 things)

Back 2

knowledge concerning the characteristics of humans that are applicable to the design of systems and devices
-concerned with: safety, usability, efficiency, productivity via design, selection, training

Front 3

Engineering psychology

Back 3

study of human limitations and abilities in information processing
-applied to design of complex systems

Front 4

Cognitive Ergonomics

Back 4

mental work done in context of and interaction with machines

Front 5

Fundamental Attribution Error

Back 5

predisposed to attribute cause to dispositions rather than circumstances
-blaming wrong people may cause problem to go unchanged (reduces safety, negative incentives to report problems)

Front 6

Human error

Back 6

consequences of actions are not intended, not due to chance because system is led outside acceptable limits
-outcome is not optimal, not in accordance with rules/procedures

Front 7

Technique for Human Error Rate Procedure (THERP, Engineering Approach)

Back 7

breaks a task into components, assigns human error probabilities from data and rsearch, adjusts probabilities for performance shaping factors
-calculates overall error probability, predicted reliability

Front 8

Engineering Approach to Human Error

Pros x3
Cons x5

Back 8

Pros: explicit, structured, face validity

Cons: labor intensive, can suffer from a lack of data or strong evidence, difficulty with high level cognition activities, people can self-correct errors, errors can build on each other

Front 9

Human Error Taxonomies (4 parts)

Back 9

behavioral, cognitive, unsafe acts, multi-level

Front 10

mistakes

Back 10

wrong plan or intention (attention problem, unintentional)

Front 11

slips

Back 11

right intention but wrong action (memory failure, unintentional)

Front 12

lapses

Back 12

omission of necessary action (rule or knowledge-based mistake, unintentional)

Front 13

violation

Back 13

deliberate derivation from safe practices (intentional)

Front 14

skill-based errors (two types)

Back 14

capture errors and blends

Front 15

rule-based errors

Back 15

misclassification of situation or an application of an incorrect rule

Front 16

knowledge-based mistakes

Back 16

incorrect mental model or processing limitations

Front 17

active failures

Back 17

unsafe acts of front-line personnel

Front 18

latent conditions

Back 18

decisions by managers, designers, and regulators that affect background factors

Front 19

Causes of systemic failure (two parts)

Back 19

active failures
latent conditions

Front 20

Reason Model (management levels/preconditions)

Back 20

Upper Management: resources for safety, training, equipment design
Middle management: responsible for schedules, safety climate, hazard identification
Preconditions: operating procedures, informal norms, attitudes, and familiarity

-errors are a consequence, not a cause, and are reflections of latent conditions of system

Front 21

Characteristics of Highly Reliable Organizations (4 parts)

Back 21

-constantly mindful
-positive reinforcement for incident reporting
-focus on liability
-learn lessons from near misses

Front 22

Key components in display design (3)

Back 22

system generates information
presented in focal design
picked up by senses of human operator

Front 23

Visual display considerations
(3 parts)

Back 23

-visible (contrast, color, location)
-legible (coding, size/visual angle, simplicity)
-compatible (control action, user representations, other displays, optimal use of attention)

Front 24

Types of visual displays
(3 parts)

Back 24

-digital
-qualitative display
-analog

Front 25

Preference-performance dissocation

Back 25

operators may prefer one display but may perform better with another

Front 26

Multiple Displays

Back 26

-overcrowded panels pushed to peripheral (focus on centrally-placed displays)
-interferes monitoring system status all at once
-operators process data in sequential manner

Front 27

Principle of Display Integration

Back 27

integrate displays into a common reference system among items to perceive directly

Front 28

Proximity-compatibility principle

Back 28

If a task requires high processing proximity, it should be high in display proximity

Front 29

Display proximity

Back 29

how close together two display components are spatially

Front 30

Processing proximity

Back 30

whether the display components are processed separately or integrated

Front 31

Object Displays

Back 31

use of several dimensions of single perceptual object to represent multiple sources of information

Front 32

Automation

Back 32

formerly done by humans but now can be done with technology

Front 33

Pros for Automation (5)

Back 33

-increase safety
-decrease human error
-save money by cutting operating costs
-more precise control and fewer operators
-reduces workload (especially if outside of capabilities)

Front 34

Reliability and Trust

Problems (5)

Back 34

-complacency
-harder to detect failures when they occur
-loss of situational awareness for task
-harder to take over if it fails
-degradation of manual skills with frequent automation use

Front 35

Mode Error

Back 35

action appropriate for one context produces unintended effect because system is in a different mode

Front 36

Workload

Dependent on... (2)

Back 36

cost of accomplishing task requirements

-Task performed
-Operator skill or expertise

Front 37

Cost (3)

Back 37

-subjective stresses
-response capabilities
-physiological reactions

Front 38

Transactional view of workload

Back 38

operator supplies cognitive resources and task demands various capabilities

Front 39

Categories of Workload Measures (4)

Back 39

-primary task performance
-subjective ratings
-secondary task technique
-physiological measures

Front 40

Primary Task Performance

Back 40

workload measure of interest, useful in extremes
-insensitive to effort, cognitive processing may utilize resources without affecting output

Front 41

Subjective workload

Back 41

measure time load, mental effort, stress load
-eay to collect, reliable, subject to bias, dissociated from performance

Front 42

Secondary Task Technique

Back 42

secondary task use to measure available resources not used for primary task performance
-not affected by biases, expectations, precisely pinpoints sources of workload, used to compare across different primary tasks
-dependent on choice of secondary task, may disrupt primary task performance

Front 43

Physiological measures (head to heart)

Back 43

event-related brain potentialsrespiration rate, pupil dilation, eyeblinks, heart rate, heart rate variability

Front 44

Effects of High Workload (2 with three parts each)

Back 44

-process fewer events (defer activities, don't gather feedback, consider fewer hypotheses)
-process events less completely (narrow field of attention, limit planning/anticipation, less thorough)

Front 45

Attention and Role of Resources

Back 45

limited capacity of attention, mechanism determines how effectively two or more tasks can be time-shared

Front 46

Multiple Resource Theory

(3 parts)

Back 46

possess several different capacities
-modalities of input
-stages of procession
-codes of processing

Front 47

Expertise

Back 47

domain specific characteristics, skills, and knowledge that distinguish experts from novices

Front 48

Characteristics of Expertise (5)

Back 48

-capable of perceiving large packets of meaningful information
-fast processing and deployment of skills
-superior short term and long term memories for material
-can represent problems at deeper level
-spend more time assessing problem prior to solving

Front 49

Maximizing Practice (3)

Back 49

-design activities to attain and improve skills
-individual motivation
-repetition

Front 50

Rasmussen's SKR Model

Back 50

behavior becomes more automatic
(knowledge to rule to skill based behaviors)

Front 51

Explicit Knowledge

Back 51

articulated into language, readily transmitted to others

Front 52

Tacit Knowledge
(two dimensions)

Back 52

Personal knowledge embedded in individual experience
-technical dimension
-cognitive dimension

Front 53

Technical Dimension (Tacit Knowledge)

Back 53

procedural, know-how to do something

Front 54

Cognitive Dimension (Tacit Knowledge)

Back 54

beliefs, perceptions, ideals, and emotions are ingrained and shape how world is viewed

Front 55

Progression of Learning:

Back 55

Knowledge and Rule-based behavior (explicit) to skill-based behavior and automaticity of action (tacit)

Front 56

Expertise in Surgery (3 parts)

Back 56

mastery of motor, cognitive, and interpersonal skills

Front 57

Benefits of Simulators for Surgery practice (4 parts)

Back 57

-training needs to provide challenging cases without putting patients at risk
-simulation environment is safe so trainees have opportunity to fail
-easier to assess performance
-immediate feedback to aid learning

Front 58

Decision

Back 58

invovles more than 1 possible course of action, expectations about future outcomes, with consequences evaluated on personal level

Front 59

Decision Analysis

Back 59

systematic procedure for analyzing complexities inherent in decision problems
-used as aid for complex decisions, standard for comparison for unaided decisions

Front 60

Decision Analysis Steps (4)

Back 60

-structure the problem and determine options
-determine preferences for outcomes
-determine beliefs and uncertainties
-figure out expected utility

Front 61

Principle of Decision Making

Back 61

maximize the subjective expected utility

Front 62

Strategy Selection (high, med., low cost/effort)

Back 62

High: analytical aids (decision analysis, econometrics, weather models)
Medium: Satisficing, elimination by aspects
Low: heuristics, habits, rules of thumb

Front 63

Elimination by aspects

Back 63

choose most important attribute, eliminate aspects not meeting some cutoff

Front 64

Satisficing

Back 64

consider first alternative and if it meets minimum value on all attributes then consider next alternative

Front 65

Individual differences on Strategy Choice (3)

Back 65

-availability
-motivation
-temperament

Front 66

Naturalistic Decision Makers

Back 66

use experience to size-up situation (recognizing features) and decide on typical way to respond (intuition)

Front 67

Implication of Decision Making (3)

Back 67

-research: use experts
-training-don't need to train analytical approaches for options
-design: aid perception and pattern recognition

Front 68

Bayes Theorem

Back 68

opinions change with evidence, revision of hypothesis with evidence depends on prior belief and data information
-not a good representation of actual decision making

Front 69

Confusing the inverse

Back 69

drawing inaccurate conclusions on basis of logical confusions

Front 70

Conservatism

Back 70

failure to update beliefs adequately in face of new evidence

Front 71

overconfidence bias

Back 71

as people acquire more evidence, their confidence increases disproportionately

Front 72

hindsight bias

Back 72

more sure after an event occurred

Front 73

confirmation bias

Back 73

stop inquiring when evidence matches what you want

Front 74

accidents

Back 74

involve unexpected scenarios that are difficult to prepare for

Front 75

operator

Back 75

perceives environment, considers information, makes decision, and produces central response

Front 76

Variables Affecting Task Performance (3)

Back 76

-stress
-environment
-machine subsystem

Front 77

Stress affects... (3)

Back 77

affects perception, decision making, and response selection
-limited time, too much information-->harder to attend to all relevant information

Front 78

ambient environment

Back 78

influence of environmental variables on operator

Front 79

organization environment

Back 79

company policies on communication patterns, decentralization of responsibilites, task allocation

Front 80

machine subsystem

Back 80

symbolizes any aretefact, control may be taken over by automation

Front 81

improving productivity

Back 81

increased with thoughtful human factors design, improve performance affordances (intuitive controls, easily interpreted information)

Front 82

operator satisfaction

Back 82

work satisfaction and satisfaction of use

Front 83

Design work with... (2 things)

Back 83

-synthesis: use of knowledge/experience to come up with design
-analysis: implementation collects real data for identifying usability problems

Front 84

Theory of Statistical Inference

Back 84

tries to eliminate the possibility something occurs due to chance

Front 85

Law of Large Numbers

Back 85

sample will only resemble a population if sample is sufficiently large

Front 86

Representativeness Heuristic

Back 86

belief in law of small numbers, belief that limited finding has ability to represent a wider population

Front 87

gambler's fallacy

Back 87

nature will straighten up a run that goes counter to intution (when actually unaffected by previous outcomes)

Front 88

conjunction fallacy

Back 88

probability of combining individual events never greater than probability of events making it up

Front 89

randomness

Back 89

article of faith in statistical science, basis of theories

Front 90

availability heuristic

Back 90

sample/individual taken as representative is simple one that is brought mind readily

Front 91

illusory correlation

Back 91

people believe two things go together when they do not

Front 92

anchoring and adjustment heuristic

Back 92

initial values you are exposed to influence judgments of value

Front 93

regression to the mean heuristic

Back 93

failure to appreciate fact (belief that high values will continue to be associated with equal or higher)

Front 94

concorde effect

Back 94

tendency to continue with project once a certain level of resource has been committed

Front 95

belief in paranormal

Back 95

unmeasurable probability judged to be too low to be just coincidence

Front 96

selective forgetting

Back 96

forgetting own predictions or illusion of control over uncontrollable situation

Front 97

conditional probability

Back 97

probability that something wil occur given something else has occurred

Front 98

neglect of base rates

Back 98

used selectively to justify judgments based on pre-existing stereotypes

Front 99

better-than-average effect

Back 99

rate selves (members of group) as superior to almost all others

Front 100

skilled performance

Back 100

reduction in conscious attention as automaticity develops through practice
-ability to carry out second task concurrently as main task

Front 101

skill

Back 101

learned ability to bring about pre-determined results with maximum certainty in minimum time and energy

Front 102

ability

Back 102

set of innate attributes that determine potential for a given activity

Front 103

skilled performance

Back 103

ability to carry out second task concurrently as main task

Front 104

task stages

Back 104

sensory store, short-term memory, processes, response output

Front 105

choking

Back 105

cogntive failure and skill breakdown, inferior performance despite striving and incentive for superior performance

Front 106

Increased arousal
(affected by 2 things, detrimental for 1 thing)

Back 106

affected by anxiety and stressors (environmental factors)
detrimental for fine motor skills

Front 107

task-irrelevant worry

Back 107

self-consciousness, sense of embarrassment at being object of other's attention

Front 108

cognitive reinvestment

Back 108

tendency to introduce conscious control of movement by isolating and focusing on specific components

Front 109

Price of automaticity (3)

Back 109

errors, mistakes, failure to trigger

Front 110

frequency gambling

Back 110

erroneous responding in which frequent or recently executed behavior takes precedence

Front 111

similarity matching

Back 111

attention captured by a few salient features of stimulus

Front 112

organizational level and top-down influence (4 parts)

Back 112

-incentives (or disincentives)
-staffing levels
-management
-information flow

Front 113

signal detection theory

Back 113

improve human performance on vigilance