Psyc 1030 Midterm

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Drive theories

Back 1

emphasize how internal states of tension push organisms in certain directions

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Incentive theories

Back 2

emphasize how external goals pull organisms in certain directions

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Evolutionary theories

Back 3

assert that motives are a product of natural selection that have had adaptive value in terms of fostering reproductive fitness

- take into account affiliation motive = need for belonging

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Biological motives

Back 4

originiate in bodily needs, limited number present

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Social motives

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originate in social experiences, vary depending on the experiences

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Lateral & Ventromedial areas of hypothalamus

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USED TO BE brain's on/off switches for hunger, proved wrong

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Arcuate & Paraventricular areas of hypothalamus

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areas that play large role in regulation of hunger

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Glucostats

Back 8

what monitor fluctuations in blood glucose; also influence hunger

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How many types of satiety signals can be sent to the brain from digestive system

Back 9

2

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Secretions of insulin (in pancreas)

Back 10

associated w/ increased hunger

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Leptin

Back 11

hormone that provides hypothalamus with info about body's fat stores

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Ghrelin & CCK

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hormones that carry hunger & satiety signals (respectively) from stomach to brain

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Key factors that influence eating behaviour (environmental factors)

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- palatability: taste

- quantity: available food

- variety of available food: greater = + eating

- presence of others: more eaten w/ others than alone

- food cues (ie. odours):

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What shapes what people prefer to eat

Back 14

classical conditioning & observational learning

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Food preferences (governed by)

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Exposure --> huge cultural variations in eating habits

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Obesity

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significant health problem that elevates one's risk for many diseases

- some inherit genetic vulnerability to this

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Set Point Theory vs Settling Point Theory

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when body monitors fat-cell levels to keep them fairly stable

vs

makes it challenging to lose weight & keep it off b/c weight drifts around level where food consumption & energy expenditure achieve an equilibrium

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Achievement Motive (David McClelland)

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Need to master difficult challenges, outperform others, meet high standards of excellence:

- Work harder & more persistently than others & are more likely to delay gratification

- choose challenges of intermediate difficulty

- pursuit of this increases when the probability of success on a task & incentive value of success are higher

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Affiliation Motivation

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- fundamental need of BELONGING, need to associate with others and maintain social bonds

- strong evolutionary roots -> promotes survival & reproductive benefits

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Ostracism

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Being ignored & excluded by the group; frequently a result of bullying

- leads to reduction in self-esteem & increased negative mood

- can lead to increased neural activity in parts of the brain associated with physical pain

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René Descartes

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Didn't believe psych could be a science because it couldn't be reduced to math & math is an important aspect of science

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Hermann von Helmholtz

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- Trained subjects to press buttons when different body parts were touched (took slightly longer to respond at toes vs fingers)

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Motivation

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goal-directed behaviour

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Motives

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need, wants, interests & desires that propel people in a direction

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Drive

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internal state of tension that motivates an organism to engage in activities that should reduce this tension

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Homeostasis

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state of physiological equilibrium/stability

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Incentive

Back 27

external goal that has the capacity to motivate behaviour

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Expectancy-value models

Back 28

motivation to pursue a particular course of action

- chances of attaining incentive

- value of the desired incentive

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Obsesity

Back 29

condition of being overweight

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Body Mass Index

Back 30

individual's weight (in kg) divided by height (in m) squared

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Normative cues

Back 31

socially appropriate food intake

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Sensory cues

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characteristics of the food itself

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Stages of Human Sexual Respone

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1) Excitement Phase

2) Plateau Phase

3) Orgasm Phase

4) Resolution Phase

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Vasocongestion

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engorgement of blood vessels (result of excitement phase)

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Orgasm

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when sexual arousal reaches its peak intensity. It discharges in a series of muscular contractions that pulsate through the pelvic area (result of orgasm phase)

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Refraction period

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time following orgasm during which males are largely unresponsive to further stimulation (resolution phase)

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Parental Investment Theory

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Men show more interest in sexual activity & variety in partners vs females selecting partners are much more selective

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Sexual Orientation

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a person's preference for emotional and sexual relationships with individuals of the same/other/either sex

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Homosexuality

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genetic predisposition to this w/ subtle brain structure differences

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Achievement Means of Measure

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TAT

- subjects write stories about what's happening in a picture

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Stable aspects of personality

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1) need for achievement

2) fear of failure

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Situational determinants of achievement behaviour

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1) perceived probability of success on specific task

2) incentive value of success on specific task

3) incentive value of failure on specific task

4) perceived probability of failure on specific task

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Emotion

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Includes:

1) subjective conscious experience (cognitive)

2) bodily arousal (physiological)

3) characteristic overt expression (behavioural)

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Affective forecasting

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Efforts to predict one's emotional reactions to future events (cognitive aspect of emotion)

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Autonomic Nervous System & Emotion

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ANS regulates activity glands, smooth muscles & blood vessels (also used in fight or flight) -- hormonal changes leading to this very important to EMOTIONAL RESPONSES

- what makes us sweat, heart race, "lump in throat", etc.

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Galvanic Skin Response (GSR)

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increase in electrical conductivity of skin that occurs when sweat glands increase their activity

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Polygraph/ Lie Detector

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device that records autonomic fluctuations while a subject is questioned, but NOT ALWAYS ACCURATE

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Brain & Emotion

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1) prefrontal cortex

- planning & executive control

- goal pursuit

2) cingulate cortex (frontal)

- pain-related emotional distress

3) mesolimbic dopamine pathways

- pleasurable emotions w/ rewarding events

4) mirror neurons

- when see someone perform same action

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Facial Feedback Hypothesis

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- BODY LANGUAGE key way emotions are expressed

facial muscles send signals to brain & these help create subjective experience of various emotions

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Display Rules

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norms that regulate appropriate expression of emotions

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Theories of Emotion

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1) James-Lange Theory

2) Cannon-Bard Theory

3) Schachter's 2-Factor Theory

4) Evolutionary Theories of emotion

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James-Lange Theory

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Conscious experience of emotion results from one's perception of autonomic arousal

STIM --> autonomic arousal --> conscious feeling

IE. fearful of something BECAUSE your heart is racing

- different patterns of autonomic activation lead to experience of different emotions

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Cannon-Bard Theory

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Emotion occurs when the thalamus sends signals SIMULTANEOUSLY to the cortex (= consc experience) & to the ANS (= creating visceral arousal)

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Schachter's 2-Factor Theory

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People infer emotion from arousal & THEN label the emotion in accordance w/ their cognitive explanation for the arousal

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Evolutionary Theories of Emotion

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Emotions are innate reactions that require little cognitive interpretation (aka emotions are immediately recognizable)

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Zygote

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one-celled organism formed by union of sperm and egg

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Prenatal Period

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extends from conception to birth, usually encompassing 9 months of pregnancy

- 3 stages

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Germinal Stage

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1st phase, first 2 weeks after conception

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Placenta

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structure that allows oxygen & nutrients to pass into fetus from mother's bloodstream, and bodily wastes to pass out to the mother

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Embryonic Stage

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second stage, 2 weeks until end of second month

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Fetal Stage

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third stage, 2 months to birth

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Age of Viability

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age @ which baby can survive in the event of premature birth

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Teratogens

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any external agents (ie. drugs & viruses) can harm an embryo/fetus

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Fetal Alcohol Syndrome

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collection of congenital (inborn) problems associated with excessive alcohol use during pregnancy

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Motor Development

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refers to progression of muscular coordination required for physical activities

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Cephalocaudal trend

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head to foot direction of motor development

(depends on physical growth)

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Proximodistal trent

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centre-outward direction of motor development (depends on physical growth)

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Maturation

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development that reflects gradual unfolding of one's genetic blueprint

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Developmental norms

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indicate the median age at which individuals display various behaviours and abilities

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Temperament

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refers to characteristic mood, activity level & emotional reactivity

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Longitudinal Research

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investigators observe 1 group of participants repeatedly over a period of time

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Cross-sectional Design

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investigators compare groups of participants of differing age at a single point in time

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Cohort effects

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occur when differences between age groups are due to groups growing up in different time periods

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Attachment

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close, emotional bonds of affection that develop b/w infants & their caregivers

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Separation anxiety

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emotional distress seen in many infants when separated from people with whom they have formed an attachment

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Strange Situation Procedure

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infants exposed to series of 8 separation & reunion episodes to assess the quality of their attachment --> AINSWORTH

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Secure Attachment

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play w/ mom, upset upon her leaving, calmed by her return

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Anxious-Ambivilant Attachment

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Anxious when mom is there, protest a lot when she leaves, not super comforted when she returns.

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Avoidant Attachment

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Little attachment shown to mom before or after she's gone

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Disorganized Attachment

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Confused about if they should approach or avoid mom & especially insecure.

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Stage

Back 81

developmental period during which characteristic patterns of behaviour are exhibited and certain capacities become established

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Erikson's 8 Stages of Development

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each addressing a psychosocial crisis in a stage of life

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Trust vs Mistrust

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"is my world predictable and supportive"

(0-1)

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Autonomy vs Shame

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"can I do things myself or do I always rely on others?"

(2-3)

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Initiative vs Guilt

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"Am I good or bad?"

(4-6)

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Industry vs Inferiority

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"Am I competent or worthless?"

(6-12)

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Identity vs Confusion

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"Who am I and where am I going?"

(12-18)

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Intimacy vs Isolation

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Shall I share my life with another or live alone?"

(18-25)

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Generativity vs Self-Absorption

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"Will I produce something of real value?"

(middle adulthood)

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Integrity vs Despair

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"Have I lived a full life?"

(late adulthood)

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Cognitive development

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transitions in youngsters' patterns of thinking, including reasoning, remembering & problem solving

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Piaget's Stage Theory

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4 life stages characterized by fundamentally different thought processes

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Sensorimotor Period

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(0-2)

- coordination of sensory input and motor responses, development of object permanence

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Preoperational Period

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(2-7)

- development of symbolic thought marked by irreversibility, centration and egocentrism

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Concrete Operational Period

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(7-11)

- mental operations applied to concrete events; mastery of conservation, hierarchial classification

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Formal Operational Period

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(11-adulthood)

- mental operations applied to abstract ideas; logical, systematic thinking

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Assimilation

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interpreting new experiences in terms of existing mental structures without changing them

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Accommodation

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Changing existing mental structures to explain new experiences

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Object Permanence

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when a child recognizes that objects continue to exist even when they are no longer visible

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Conservation (Preoperational 1)

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awareness that physical quantities remain constant in spite of changes in their shape or appearance (ie. water in 2 different containers)

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Centration (Preoperational 2)

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tendency to focus on just one feature of a problem, neglecting other important aspects

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Irreversibility (Preoperational 3)

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inability to envision reversing an action

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Egocentrism (Preoperational 4)

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thinking is characterized by limited ability to share another person's viewpoint

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Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

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gap between what a learner can accomplish alone & what he/she can achieve with guidance from more skilled partners