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109 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Define Psychology
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scientific study of behavior and mental processes
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Darwin's concept of natural selection
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principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those that lead to increased reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations
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Survey
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describe behavior by gathering info from a large number of people. This technique relies on people giving accurate self-reports of their attitues or behaviors. Wording effects - subtle influences in the sequence or phrasing of questions - can affect responses. Random sampling helps researchers achieve a sample that fairly represents the population under study. Technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of people, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of them.
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Case study
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an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles
Case studies describe behavior, suggest hypotheses,but studying an un representative individual may lead to false conclusions |
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experiment
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a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (dependent variable). By random asignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant factors
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independent variable
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the experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied
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dependent variable
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the outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable
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Naturalistic observations
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observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation
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Correlation
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a measure how closer two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other. Correlation coefficient is the mathematical expression of the relationship, ranging from -1 to +1
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Limits of correlations
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a correlation indicates the possibility of a cause-effect relationship, but it does not prove causation or, if causation exists, the direction of the influence. A third factor may be the cause of the correlation
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hypotheses
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a testable prediction, often implied by a theory
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theory
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an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and p redicts behaviors or events
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Difference between hypotheses and theory
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theory explains a phenomenon accounts for all available data and supported by a huge boyd of evidences, hypothesis are best guesses that need tested
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synapse
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the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron. The tiny gap at this junction is called the synaptic gap or cleft
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corpus callosum
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the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them
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thalamus
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the brain's sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving ares in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla.
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cerebellum
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the "little brain" attached to the rear of the brainstem; its functions include processing sensory input and coordinating movement output and balance.
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limbic system
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a doughnut-shaped system of neural structures at the border of the brainstem and cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions such as fear and aggression and drives such as those for food and sex. Includes the hippocampus, amygdala and hypothalamus
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amygdala
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two lima bean-sized neural clusters that are components of the limbic system and are linked to emotion
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hypothalamus
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a neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland,and is linked to emotion
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hippocampus
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processes memory
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5 brain areas involve in language
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-visual cortex
-angular gyrus -Wernicke's area -Broca's area -Motor cortex |
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visual cortex
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registers wouds as visual stimuli
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angular gyrus
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transforms visual represntations into auditory codes
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Wernicke's area
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interprets auditory codes and sends the message to broca's area
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Broca's area
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controls speech muscles via the motor cortex
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motor cortex
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creates the pronouced words
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Evolutionary psychology perspective
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study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection. Evolutionary psychlogists focus mostly on what makes us so much alike as humans
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Nature vs. nurture
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How much of what we are is determined by our DNA and how much by our life experience. But we do know that both play a part. Some scientists think that people behave as they do according to genetic predispositions or even "animal instincts." This is known as the "nature" theory of human behavior. Other scientists believe that people think and behave in certain ways because they are taught to do so. This is known as the "nurture" theory of human behavior.
Fast-growing understanding of the human genome has recently made it clear that both sides are partly right. Nature endows us with inborn abilities and traits; nurture takes these genetic tendencies and molds them as we learn and mature. End of story, right? Nope. The "nature vs nurture" debate still rages on, as scientist fight over how much of who we are is shaped by genes and how much by the environment |
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how experience can modify the brain
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Nurture continues outside the womb. Experiences foster brain development. It help develop our brain's neural connections, this is why stimulation is crucial. After brain maturation experiences preserves our activated connections while allowing our unused connections to degenerate, we gradually loose unemployed connections through prunning. If there is no stimulation the nerve cells will die or diverted to another brain function. Brain development do not end with childhood. Neural tussue changes throughout life. Nature and Nurture sculpt our synapses.
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Individualism
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individualism values personal independence and individual achievement; morality is self-defined and confrontation is acceptable. They define identity in terms of self-esteem, personal goals and attributes, and personal rights and liberties
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Collectivism
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value interdependence, tradition, and harmony. Relationships tend to be few, close, and enduring and morality is based on duty to one's social network. Define identity in terms of group goals and commitments and belonging to one's group
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The Harlow's experiment
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reared monkeys with 2 artificial mothers, one a bare wire cylinder with a wooden head and an attached feeding bottle, the other a cylinder with no bottle but covered with foam rubber and wrapped with terry cloth. Monkeys much preferred contact with the comfortable colth mother even while feeding from the nourishing mother. this contradicted the idea that attachment derives from an association with nourishment
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attachment
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emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation
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Piaget. HOw does the mind develop Sensorimotor stage (birth to 2)
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children experience the world through their senses. infants lack object permanence or the awareness that things exist when out of sight
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Piaget preoperational stage (age 2 to age or 7)
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children learn to use language but they are unable to reason logically. They are egocentric and have difficulty on taking other person's point of view. have no concept of concept of conservation - things can change in form but retain their mass, volume or number
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Piaget concrete operational stage (age 7 to 11)
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children can think logically about concrete events, grasp analogies, and perform arithmethical operations
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Piaget formal operational stage (12 through adulthood)
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gain the ability to reason abstractly
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physical changes in later life
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In late adulthood, especially after age hearing, distance perception, and the sense of smell diminish, as do muscle strenght, reaction time and stamina. Body's immune system weakens, the elderly become vulnerable to cancer and pneumonia, short-term ailments are fewer. neural process slow especially for complex tasks and by age 80 the brain shrinks. Dementia is not a normal part of the aging process
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transduction
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conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brains can interpret
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what form of energy our visual system converts into the neural messages our brain can interpret
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Light energy
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how Young-Helmholtz trichromatic (three color) theory help us understand color vision
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the theory states that the retina has three types of color receptors, each especially sensitive to one of three colors (red, green or blue)when we stimulate combinations of these cones we see other colors
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opponent process theories help us understand color vision
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theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision. Some cells are stimulated by greeen and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green.
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sensation
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detection of physical energy from the environment and encode it as neural signals
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perception
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selection, organization, and interpretation of our sensations, enabligh us to recognize meaningful objects and events
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Bottom-up processing
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analysis that begins with the sensory recpetors and workks up to the brain's integration of sensory information
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top-down processing
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information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we cosntruct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations
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Gestalt (whole) psychology's contribution to understand of perception
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Gestalt psychologists searched for rules by which the brain organizes fragments of sensory data into gestalts or meaningful forms. researchers showed that we constantly filter sensory information and infer perceptions in ways that make sense to us
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how our expectations about perceived size and distance contribut to some visual illusions
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there is a close relationship between perceived size and perceived distance; knowing its distance gives clues about its size. this relationship sometimes misleads us.
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Consciousness
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our awarenss of ourselves and our environment
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risks of sleep deprivation
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not only fatigue, but depressed immune system; impaired concentration, creativity, and communication; irritability; and slowed performance with vulnerability to accidents. Chronic sleep deprivation can alter metabolic and hormonal functioning, creating conditions that may contribute to obesity, hypertension, and memory impairment.
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why we dream (different perspectives)
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1)Freud:dreams provide a safety value that discharges otherwise unacceptable feelings. To satisfy our own wishes.
2. informatio-processing perspective on dreaming: dreams help us sort out the day's experiences and fix them in memory. 3)other psych theories: REM-induced regular brain stimualtion helps develop and preserve neural pathways in the brain 4)activation-synthesis explanation:REM slep triggers impulses in the visual cortex, evokin random visual images that our brain tries to weave into a story line. 5)brain-maturation/cognitive development perspective: dreams represent the dreamer's level of development, knowledge, and understanding |
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classical conditioning
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a type of learning in which an organism comes to associate stimuli. A neutral stimulus that signals an unconditioned stimulus (US) begins to produce a response that anticipates and prepares for the unconditioned stimulus. Also called Pavlovian or respondent conditioning
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components of classical conditioning
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UR:unconditioned response
US: unconditioned stimulus CR: conditioned response CS: Conditioned stimulus |
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UR: unconditioned response
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the unlearned, maturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US) ex: salivation when food is in the mouth
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US: unconditioned stimulus
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a stimulus that unconditionally - naturally and automatically - triggers a response ex: food in mouth
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CR: conditioned response
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the learned response to a previously neutral, but now conditioned, stimulus ex: salivation when the tone of the bell
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CS: conditioned stimulus
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an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned sitmulus (US) comes to trigger a conditioned response ex: sound of bell related to food
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Bandura on what determines whether we will imitate a model
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we are likely to imitate actions that go unpunished. And we tend to imitate models we perceive as similar to us, successful, or admirable
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operant conditioning
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a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher. the organism learns associations between its own behavior and resulting events. It involves operant behavior (behavior that operates on the environment, to produce rewarding or punishing stimuli)
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difference with classical conditioning
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is that CC involves respondent behavior, that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus. Is the organism learning associations between events that it doesn't control (CC) or is it learning associations between its behavior and resulting events (OC)
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shaping behavior
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An operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior
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role of positive reinforcement in shaping behavior
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adds something desireble to increase the frequency of a behavior
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Atkinson-Shiffin classic three-stage model of memory
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1)register fleeting sensory memories, some of which are
2)processed into on-screen short-term memories, a tiny fractio of which are 3)encoded for long-term memory and possible later retrieval |
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explain how the contemorary model of working memory differs from Atkinson-Shiffrin
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we register some info automatically, bypassing the first two stages. They prefer working memory instead of short-term memory because it emphasizes a more active role in this second processing stage, where we rehearse and manipulate info, associating new sitmuli with older stored memories. It includes visual-spatial and auditory subsystems
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effortful processing
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requires conscious attention and deliberate effort (rehearsal)
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next in line effect
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our tendency to forget (through failure to encode) what the person ahead of us in line has said because we are focusing on what we will say in our upcoming turn
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spacing-effect
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tendency to retain information more easily if we practice it repeatedly over time than if we practice it inone long session (cramming)
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serial position effect
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tendency to recall the first and the last items in a long list more easily than we recall the intervening items
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explain how misinformation can distort our memory of an event
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memories are not stored or retrieved as exact copies of our experiences. Rather, we construct our memories, using both stored and new information. If subtly exposed to misinformation after an event, or if they repeatedly imagine and rehearse an event that never occured, they may incorporate the misleading details into their memory of what actually happened.
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what do congnitive psychologists study
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mental activities such as processing, understanding, remembering, and communicating. Also activities including the logical and sometimes illogical ways in which we create concepts, solve problems, make decisions, and form judgments
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confirmation bias
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tendency to search for information that confirms one's preconceptions
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representativeness heuristic
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judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represnt, or match, particular prototypes; may lead one to ignore other relevant information (ex: teacher - truck driver experiment.. )
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availability heuristic
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estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vivid-ness)we pressume such events are common (letter k example)
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framing effect
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the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect desisions and judgments (ground beef example consumers respond por popsitively to beed described as 85% lean rather than 25% fat
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intelligence
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mental quality consisting of the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations
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explain: a test is valid
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the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to
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explain: a test is reliable
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the extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two halves of the test on alternate forms of the test, or on retesting
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framing effect
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the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect desisions and judgments (ground beef example consumers respond por popsitively to beed described as 85% lean rather than 25% fat
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intelligence
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mental quality consisting of the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations
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explain: a test is valid
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the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to
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explain: a test is reliable
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the extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two halves of the test on alternate forms of the test, or on retesting
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genetic factors to explain group differences in intelligence
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studies of twins, and adopted children have shown that ther is significant genetic contribution to intelligence. Heritability of int. refers to the extent to which variation in int test scores in a group of people being studied is attributable to genetic factors. The most geneticallly similar people have the most similar scores.
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environmental factors that might explain group differences in intelligence
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same studies provid evidence of environmental influence of intelligence. scores of twins raised together are more similar than those of other siblings, and of identical twins raised apart are less similar than scores of identical twins raised toghether. Also children reared in impoverished, enriched, or culturally different environments indicate that life experiences significantly influence intelligence test performance
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Maslow's hierarchy of needs
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pyramid of human needs, beginning at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied before higher-level safety needs and then psycholocial needs become active
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Maslow's pyramid
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1) physiological needs: hunger, thirst
2)safety needs: need to feel that the world is organized, need to feel safe, secure, and stable 3) belogingness and love needs: need to love and be loved, to belong and be accepted, need to avoid loneliness and alienation 4) esteem needs: need for self-esteem, achievement, competence, and independece,need for recognition and respect from others 5) self-actualization needs: need to live up to one's fullest and unique potential |
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genetic factors to explain group differences in intelligence
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studies of twins, and adopted children have shown that ther is significant genetic contribution to intelligence. Heritability of int. refers to the extent to which variation in int test scores in a group of people being studied is attributable to genetic factors. The most geneticallly similar people have the most similar scores.
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environmental factors that might explain group differences in intelligence
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same studies provid evidence of environmental influence of intelligence. scores of twins raised together are more similar than those of other siblings, and of identical twins raised apart are less similar than scores of identical twins raised toghether. Also children reared in impoverished, enriched, or culturally different environments indicate that life experiences significantly influence intelligence test performance
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Maslow's hierarchy of needs
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pyramid of human needs, beginning at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied before higher-level safety needs and then psycholocial needs become active
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Maslow's pyramid
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1) physiological needs: hunger, thirst
2)safety needs: need to feel that the world is organized, need to feel safe, secure, and stable 3) belogingness and love needs: need to love and be loved, to belong and be accepted, need to avoid loneliness and alienation 4) esteem needs: need for self-esteem, achievement, competence, and independece,need for recognition and respect from others 5) self-actualization needs: need to live up to one's fullest and unique potential |
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origins of sexual orientation
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One posibility: fraternal birth-order effect: a defensive maternal immune response to foreign substances produced by male fetuses. The maternal antibodies may become stronger after eache pregnancy with male and may prevent the fetus' brain from developing in a male-typical pattern.
2)if segregated by gender at the time their sex drive matures. |
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effective management techniques
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-focus their training on people's strengths rather than on weak areas
-they attempt to catch the employee doing "something right" and reward that behavior -work with employees to set specific, challenging, and measurable objectives and to outline paths to achieve it -leadership style should be appropriate for the type of people and the goals (task leadership or social leadership) |
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predictors of happiness
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happiness is in part genetically influenced and other part in our own control.
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how to improve happiness
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1)realizing that enduring happiness doesn't come from financial success
2)taking control of one's time 3)acting happy 4)seeking work and leisure that engage one's skills 5 exercising regularly 6) getting adequate sleep 7)giving priority to close relationships 8)focusing beyond oneself 9)being grateful for what we have 10) nurturing our spritual selves |
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stress
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the process by which we perceive and respond to certain events, called stressors, that we appraise as threatening or challenging
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advantages of aerobic exercise
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it helps to lower blood pressure, increased arousal, higher levels of neurotranmitters taht boost moods, (norepinephrine, serotonin and endorphins) enhanced cognitive abilities, and growth of new brain cells. Also reaises energy levels, increases self-confidence, lowes tension, and may alleviate depression and anxiety
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personality
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an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling and acting
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FReud's views of personality structure and discuss the interactions of the id, ego, and superego
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Freud saw personality as the product of a conflict between our biological impulses and our internalized social restraints on this impulses. The players are id, ego and superego
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id
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which wants immediate gratification operates in the unconscious and attempts to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives
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super ego
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our internalized st of ideals, is the voice of our conscience judging our actions and producing feeling of pride or guilt
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ego
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between the id and super-ego, the ego is the largely conscious, reality-oriented executive that attempts to reconcile the impulses of the id with the demands of the superego and those of the external world
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objective or goal of the DSM-IV (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
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-describes 400 disorders and their prevalence
-defines a structured interview thechnique that clinicians can use to reach a diagnosis -answer objective questions posed at 5 diff levels or axes about the individual's observable behaviors |
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criteria for judging whether behavior is psychologically disordered
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psychologists and psychiatists consider behavior disordered when it is deviant, distressful, and dysfunctional
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focus of psychoanalysis
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Freud's therapeutic thecnique. Psychoanalysis tries to bring repressed feelings into conscious awareness where the patient can deal with them. He believed the patient's free associations, rsistance, dreams, and transferences and the therapist's interpretations of them, released previously repressed feelings, allowing the patiend to gain self-insight
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humanistic therapy
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focus on individual's present and future experiences more than past experiences. On conscious rather than uncoscious thoughts and on taking responsibility of one's feelins and actions
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behavior therapy
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applies learning principles to eliminate a troubling behavior. for them troubling behaviors can be erplaced with constructive behaviors. Includes: counterconditioning: exposure therapy and aversive conditioning
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cognitive-behavior therapy
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combines cognitive therapy (changing self-defeating thinking) with behavior therapy (changing behavior)
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ingredients underlying the success of all psychotherapies
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-all types seem to offer new hope for demoralized people
-a fresh perspective -an empathic trusting caring relationship |
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lessons of Phillip Zimbardo's Stanford Prison Study
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it demonstrated how actions can influence on attitudes. the toxic situation simulated by Zimbardo developed in a degrading behaviors among those assigned to the guard role
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