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103 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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zygote
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the fertilized egg, formed by the union of sperm and egg
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embryonic stage
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the third through eighth week of prenatal development; during this phase critical genes turn on and produce chemical signals that induce a process of differentiation
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neural tube
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the tubular structure formed early in the embryonic stage from which the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) develops; after one month there are three identifiable parts (1) brain stem and spinal cord (2) midbrain (3) forebrain
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fetal stage
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the prenatal period from the ninth week until birth
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tetratogens
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environmental factors that can disrupt healthy neural development. These include lead, alcohol, and cigarette smoke through mother's blood
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fetal alcohol syndrome
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a developmental disorder that affects children whose mothers consumed alcohol during pregnancy; its effect include a range of psychological problems and physical abnormalities
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grasp reflex
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an infantile reflex in which an infant closes her hand into a fist when her palm is touched
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rooting reflex
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in an infant, the sucking elicited by stroking applied on or around the lips; the reflex aids breast feeding
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sucking reflex
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an infantile reflex in which an infant sucks on whatever is placed in his mouth
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sensorimotor period
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in Piaget's theory, the period of cognotive development from birth to about 2 years, in which the child has not yet achieved object permanence; differentiates self from objects; achieves object permanence (realizes that objects continue to exist even when no longer present to the senses)
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object permanence
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the conviction that an object exists even when is out of sight. Piaget believed infants didn't develop this level of understanding until the age of at least eight months
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A-not-B effect
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the tendency of infants to reach for a hidden object where it was preciously hidden (place A), rather than where it was hidden most recently while the child watched (place B); this is near 8 months
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assimilation
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in Piaget's theory, the developing child's process of interpreting the environment in terms of the schema he already has
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accommodation
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in Piaget's theory, the developing child's process of changing his schemas based on his interactions with the environment
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preoperational period
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in Piaget's theory, the period from about ages 2 to 7, in which a child can think represetationally, but can't yet relate these representations to each other or take a point of view other than her own; such an example in in the young child's apparent failure to conserve quantity such in using different size glasses with the same amount of water poured into each
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concrete operational period
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In Piaget's theory, the period from about age 7 to about 12, in which the child is beginning to understand abstract ideas such as number and substance, but only as they apply to real, concrete events
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habituation procedure
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a method for studying infant perception. After some exposure to a stimulus, an infant becomes habituated and stops paying attention to it. If the infant shows renewed interest when a new stimulus is presented, this reveals that the infant regards the new stimulus as different from the old one.
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theory of mind
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the set of interrelated concepts we use to make sense of our own thoughts, feelings, and behaviors, as well as those of others (used for understanding others' intentions and so on)
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social referencing
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a process of using others' facial expressions a a cue about the situation
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attachment
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the strong, enduring, emotional bond between a child and its caregivers that some psychologists consider the basis for relationships later in life
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secure base
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according to John Bowlby, the relationship in which the child feels safe and protected
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imprinting
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in many species, the learned attachment that is formed at a particular early period
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strange situation
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an experimental procedure for assessing attachment, in which the child is allowed to explore an unfamiliar room with the mother present before the mother leaves for a few minutes, and then return; many theorist argue that a child's attachment status shapes his social world in important ways
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internal working model
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a set of beliefs and expectations about how people behave in social relationships, and also guidelines for interpreting others' actions, and habitual responses to make in social settings
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zone of proximal development
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the range of accomplishments that are beyond what the child can do on her own, but that she can achieve with help or guidance
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sociometric data
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data that describe how individuals in a group interact
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aggressive-rejected
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the social status of children who are not respected or liked by peers and become aggressive as a result
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withdrawn-rejected
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the social status of children who are respected or like by peers and become anxious as a result
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preconventional reasoning
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according to Kolhberg, the first and second stages of moral reasoning, which are focused on getting rewards and avoiding punishments (decreasing with age and eventually stable)
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conventional reasoning
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accroding to Kohlberg, the third and fourth stages of moral reasoning, which are focused on social relationships, conventions, and duties (increasing with age and eventually stable)
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postconventional reasoning
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according to Kohlberg, the fifth and sixth stages of moral reasoning, which are focused on ideals and broad moral principles (increasing with age and eventual stable)
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puberty
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the period of physical and sexual maturation in which the child's body begins to develop into its adult form
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primary sexual characteristics
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bodily structures directly related to reproduction (penis, testes, genitalia, reproductive organs)
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secondary sexual characteristics
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bodily structures that change with sexual maturity but are not directly related to reproduction (facial, pubic and underarm hair, muscle growth in the upper torso, deepening of voice, growth of breasts and hips)
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formal operational period
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In Piaget's theory, the period from about age twelve on, in which a child can think abstractly and consider hypothetical possibilities
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identity versus role confusion
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according to Erikson, the major developmental task of adolescence is developing a stable ego identity, or sense of who one is. Failure results in developing a negative identity or in role confusion
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Alzheimer's disease
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a degenerative brain disorder characterized by memory loss followed by increasing disorientation and culminating in physical and mental helplessness
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intimacy versus isolation
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according to Erikson, a major developmental task of early adulthood is developing an intimate relationship. Failure to do so may lead to isolation
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generativity versus stagnation
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according to Erikson, a major developmental task of later adulthood is finding meaning in one's work, which produces a sense of generativity. Failure leads to a sense of stagnation
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integrity versus despair
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according to Erikson, the major developmental task of older age is finding meaning in the life that one has led. Success gives rise to a sense of integrity, whereas failure leads to despair
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phoneme
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the smallest significant unit of sound in a language. Alphabetic characters roughly correspond to phonemes
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segmentation
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listeners must figure out where one word ends and the next begins
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morpheme
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the smallest significant unit of meaning in a word
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content morpheme
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a morpheme that carries the main semantic and referential content of a sentence. In English content morphemes are usually nouns, verbs, adjectives, or adverbs
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function morpheme
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a morpheme that while adding such content as time, mode, individuation, and evidentiality, also serves a grammatical purpose (e.g. -s, -er, and, if)
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rules of syntax (or grammar)
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the regular principles governing how words can be assembled into sentences
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tree diagram
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a geometrical representation of the structure of a sentence. It's nodes are labeled with phrase - (e.g. noun phrase) and word-class (e.g. adjective) category names, and the descending branches indicate relationships among these categories
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phrase structure description
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a tree diagram or labeled bracketing that shows the hierarchical structure of a sentence
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definitional theory of word meaning
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the theory that mental representations of word meanings consist of a necessary and sufficient set of semantic features. The representation of apple, for example, might be [round], [edible], [sweet], [red], [juicy]
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semantic feature
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a basic semantic category or concept that cannot be decomposed into smaller or less inclusive categories. According to several strict theories (e.g. Hume, 1739), the basic features are all sensory-perceptual
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prototype theory
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a theory in which concepts or word meanings are formed around average or typical values
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case marker
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a word or affix that indicates the semantic role played by some noun in a sentence
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garden path
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a premature, false syntactic analysis of a sentence as it is being heard or read, which must be mentally revised when later information within the sentence falsifies the initial interpretation as in e.g. Put the ball on the floor into the box.
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basic-level word
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a concept at some accessible, middling degree of abstractness or inclusiveness (e.g. dog, spoon)
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superordinates
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concepts that are more abstract or inclusive than basic-level concepts (e.g. animal, utensil)
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subordinates
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concepts that are less abstract or more particular than basic-level concepts (e.g. poodle, soup spoon)
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crib bilingual
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a prelinguisitc infant who is exposed to two or more languages in the home environment
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aphasia
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any of a number of linguistic disorders caused by injury to or malformation of the brain
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Specific Language Impairment (SLI)
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a syndrome of unknown etiology in which the course of development of a first language is unusually protracted despite otherwise normally developing cognitive functions
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sensitive period
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an early period during the development of an organism when it is particularly responsive to environmental stimulation. Outside of this period, the same environmental events have less impact.
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Whorfian hypothesis
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the proposal that the language one speaks determines or heavily influences the thoughts one can think or the saliency of different categories of thought
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consciousness
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moment-by-moment awareness of ourselves, our thoughts, and our environment
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introspection
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the process of "looking within" to observe one's own thoughts, beliefs, and feelings
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cognitive unconscious
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the mental support processes outside our awareness that make our perception, memory, and thinking possible
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blindsight
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the ability of a person with a lesion in the visual cortex to reach toward or correctly "guess" about objects in the visual field even though the person reports seeing nothing
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mind-body problem
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the difficulty in understanding how the mind and body influence each other - so that physical events can cause mental events, and so that mental events can cause physical ones
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neural correlates of consciousness
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specific brain states that seem to correspond to the content of someone's conscious experience
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global workspace hypothesis
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a hypothesis about the neural basis of consciousness. It proposes that specialized neurons, give rise to consciousness by allowing us to link stimuli or ideas in dynamic, coherent representations
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alpha rhythm
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a pattern of regular pulses, between 8 and 12 per second, visible in the EEG of a person who is relaxed but awake and typically has her eyes closed
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beta rhythm
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the rhythmic pattern in the brain's electrical activity often observed when a person is actively thinking about some specific topic
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delta rhythm
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the rhythmic pattern in the brain's electrical activity often observed when a person is in slow-wave sleep
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slow-wave sleep
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a term used for both stage 3 and stage 4 sleep; characterized by slow, rolling eye movement, low cortical arousal, and slowed heart rate and respiration
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REM sleep
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sleep characterized by rapid eye movements, EEG patterns similar to wakefulness, speeded heart rate and respiration, near-paralysis of skeletal muscles, and highly visual dreams
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activation-synthesis hypothesis
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the hypothesis that dreams may be just a byproduct of the sleeping brain's activities (activation), which are later assembled into a semicoherent narrative (synthesis)
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hypnosis
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a highly relaxed, suggestible state of mind in which a person is likely to feel that his actions and thoughts are happening to him rather than being produced voluntarily
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mental representations
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contents in the mind that stand for some object, event or state of affairs
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analogical representation
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an idea that shares some of he actual characteristics of the object it represents (example the drawing of a cat)
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mental images
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mental representations that resemble the objects they represent by directly reflecting the perceptual qualities of the thing represented
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symbolic representation
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a mental representation that stands for some content without sharing any characteristics with thing it represents (example the word "cat")
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proposition
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a statement relating a subject and a claim about that subject
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node
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in network-based models of mental representation, a "meeting place" for the various connections associated with a particular topic
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associative links
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in network-based models of mental representation, connections between the symbols (or nodes) in the network
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spreading activation
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the process through which activity in one node in a network flows outward to other nodes through associative links
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directed thinking
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thinking aimed at a particular goal
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judgment
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the process of extrapolating from evidence to draw conclusions
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heurisitics
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a strategy for making judgments quickly, at the price of occasional mistakes
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availability heurisitcs
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a strategy for judging how frequently something happens - or how common it is - based on how easily examples of it come to mind
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representative heuristics
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a strategy for judging whether an individual, object, or event belongs in a certain category based on how typical of the category it seems to be
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dual-process theory
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the proposal that judgment involves two types of thinking: a fast, efficient, but sometimes faulty set of strategies, and a slower, more laborious, but less risky set of strategies
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System 1
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In dual-process models of judgment, the fast, efficient, but sometimes faulty type of thinking
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System 2
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In dual-process models of judgment, the slower, more effortful, and more accurate type of reasoning
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reasoning
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the process of figuring out the implications of particular beliefs
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confirmation bias
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the tendency to take evidence that's consistent with you beliefs more seriously than evidence inconsistent with your beliefs
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syllogism
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a logic problem containing two premises and a conclusion; the syllogism is valid if the conclusion follows logically from the premises
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framing
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the way a decision is phrased or the way options are described. Seemingly peripheral aspects of the framing can influence decisions by changing the point of reference
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loss aversion
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the strong tendency to regard losses as considerably more important than gains of comparable magnitude - and, with this, a tendency to take steps (including risky steps) to avoid possible loss
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affective forcasting
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predicting one's own emotional response to upcoming events
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satisfice
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in decision making, seeking a satisfactory option rather than spending more time and effort to locate and select the ideal option
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means-end analysis
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a problem-solving strategy in which you continually evaluate the difference between your current state and your goal, and consider how to use your resources to reduce the difference
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subroutines
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in problem solving, specific procedures for solving familiar, well-defined problems
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automaticity
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the ability to do a task without paying attention to it
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mental set
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the perspective that a person takes and the assumptions he makes in approaching a problem
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restructuring
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a reorganization of a problem that can facilitate its solution; a characteristic of creative thought
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