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34 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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what is the difference between genotype vs phenotype
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Genotype- the genetic constitution determined at the moment of conception.
Phenotype- Observable physical characteristics that result from both genetic and environmental influences. |
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how do twin studies help establish heritability
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Twin studies compare similarities between different types of twins to determine the genetic basis of traits.
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what are alleles; concept of dominant vs recessive
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Alleles- A and a, each one is an allele coming from the parent. Part of a gene.
Dominant gene- a gene that is expressed in the offspring whenever it is present. Recessive gene- a gene that is expressed only when it is matched with a similar gene from the other parent. |
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what is the structure and nature of the neuron: dendrite, axon, cell body, synapse,
vesicles, myelin |
Neuron- the basic unit of the nervous system; it operates through electrical impulses, which communicates with other neurons through chemical signals. Neurons receive, integrate, and transmit information in the nervous system.
Dendrites- branchlike extensions of the neuron that detect information from other neurons. Cell body- in the neuron, where information from thousands of other neurons is collected and processed. Axon- a long narrow outgrowth of a neuron by which information is transmitted to other neurons. Synapse(synaptic cleft)- the site for chemical communication between neurons, which contains extracellular fluid. Myelin sheath- a fatty material, made up of glial cells, that insulates the axon and allows for the rapid movement of electrical impulses along the axon. |
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what is the difference between afferent vs efferent neurons
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Afferent neurons- are pathways leading to the cortex. Sensory neuron.
Efferent neurons- lead away from the cortex. Motor Neuron |
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what are the basics of action potential; all or nothing principle of neural activity;
propagation of nerve impulse |
Action potential- the neural impulse that passes along the axon and subsequently causes the release of chemicals from the terminal buttons.
All-or-nothing principle- the principle whereby a neuron fires with the same potency each time, although frequency can vary; it either fires or not--it cannot partially fire. Propagation of nerve impulse- Once an action potential has started it is moved (propagated) along an axon automatically. The local reversal of the membrane potential is detected by the surrounding voltage-gated ion channels, which open when the potential changes enough. |
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what happens to neurotransmitters after their release?
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The neurotransmitters spread across the synaptic cleft and attach themselves(bind) to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron.
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know these neurotransmitters and the role they play: dopamine, seratonin, endorphine, GABA, acetylcholine
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Dopamine- reward and motivation. Motor control over voluntary movement.
Serotonin- emotional states and impulsiveness. Dreaming. Endorphin- pain reduction. Reward. GABA(gamma-aminobutyric acid)- inhibition of action potentials. Anxiety and intoxication. Acetylcholine- motor control over muscles. Learning, memory, sleeping, and dreaming. |
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what are the basic components of CNS: brain stem structures (tectum, reticular formation, pons, medulla) and cerebellum; limbic systems (amygdala, hippocamus, hypothalamus) and thalamus
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CNS(central nervous system)- the brain and spinal cord.
Brainstem- a section of the bottom of the brain, housing the most basic programs of survival, such as breathing, swallowing, vomiting, urination, and orgasm. Cerebellum- A large, convoluted protuberance at the back of the brainstem, essential for coordinated movement and balance. Amygdala- a brain structure that serves as a vital role in our learning to associate things with emotional responses and in processing emotional information. Hippocampus- a brain structure important for the formation of certain types of memory. Hypothalamus- a small brain structure that is vital for temperature regulation, emotion, sexual behavior, and motivation. Thalamus- the gateway to the brain; it receives almost all incoming sensory information before that information reaches the cortex. |
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what are the lobes of the cortex and their basic functioning
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occipital lobe- a region of the cerebral cortex, at the back of the brain, important for vision.
parietal lobe- a region of the cerebral cortex, in front of the occipital lobes and behind the frontal lobes, important for the sense of touch and of the spatial layout of an environment. temporal lobes- the lower region of the cerebral cortex, important for processing auditory information and for memory. frontal lobes- the region at the front of the cerebral cortex concerned with planning and movement. prefrontal cortex- a region of the frontal lobes, especially prominent in humans, important for attention, working memory, decision making, appropriate social behavior, and personality. |
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what are the general functional differences of the right and left hemisphere?
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Right- better with spatial relationships. Mute.
Left- Better with language. Control over speech. |
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what are the components of PNS
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PNS(peripheral nervous system)- all nerve cells in the body that are not part of the central nervous system. The PNS includes the somatic and autonomic nervous systems.
somatic nervous system- a major component of the PNS; it transmits sensory signals to the CNS via nerves. autonomic nervous system(ANS)- a major component of the PNS; it regulates the body’s internal environment by stimulating glands and by maintaining internal organs such as the heart, gall bladder, and stomach. sympathetic division of ANS- a division of the autonomic nervous system; it prepares the body for action. parasympathetic division of ANS- a division of the autonomic nervous system; it returns the body to its resting state. |
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what are the basics of hormone effects, e.g. how do hormones operate compared to neurotransmitters
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Hormones- chemical substances, typically released from endocrine glands, that travel through the bloodstream to targeted tissues, which are subsequently influenced by the hormones.
Once released, hormones travel through the bloodstream until they reach their target tissues, where they bind to receptor sites and influence the tissues. Hormones can take from seconds to hours to exert their effects; once hormones are in the bloodstream, their effects can last for a long time and affect multiple targets. Effect on sexual behavior- The main endocrine glands influencing sexual behavior are the gonads. The two major gonadal hormones are identical in males and females, but the quantity differs: androgens such as testosterone are more prevalent in males, whereas estrogens such as estradiol and progesterone are more prevalent in females. Gonadal hormones influence both the development of secondary sex characteristics and adult sexual behavior. Men need a minimum amount of testosterone to perform sexually. Women’s sexual behavior may have more to do with androgen than estrogens. Women with higher levels of testosterone report greater interest in sex, and testosterone injections increase women’s sexual interest after surgical removal of the uterus. |
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what is the sequence that activates hormone secretion
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Pituitary gland- located at the base of the hypothalamus; the gland that send hormonal signals controlling the release of hormones from endocrine glands.
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connection between brain activity and consciousness
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Consciousness- the subjective experience of the world and of mental activity.
Most psychologists reject dualism, instead believing that the brain and mind are inseperable. According to this view, the activity of neurons in the brain produces the contents of consciousness: the sight of a face, the smell of a rose. More specifically, each type of content--each sight, each smell--has an associated pattern of brain activity. |
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what have we learned from split brain functioning; purpose of severing corpus callosum
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Splitting the brain splits the conscious mind.
Corpus callosum- the massive fiber bundle is the major connection between the hemispheres that may be readily cut without damaging the gray matter. Most epilepsy responds to treatment with modern medications, but in rare, extreme cases that do not respond to medications, the corpus callosum may be cut completely as a means of treatment. When the corpus callosum is severed, the brain’s halves are almost completely isolated from each other(split brain). Split brain- a condition in which the corpus callosum is surgically cut and the two hemispheres of the brain do not receive information directly from each other. |
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what are the sleep stages? how are they different?
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Alert wakefulness- Beta waves
Just before sleep- Alpha waves Stage 1-Theta waves. Can be aroused easily. If awakon, you will deny you were sleeping. Might see fantastical images or geometric shapes; you might have the sensation that you are falling or that your limbs are jerking. Stage 2- sleep spindle(occasional bursts of activity), K complex(large waves). Breathing becomes more regular, and you become less sensitive to external stimulation. Now really asleep. EEG would continue to show Theta waves. Abrupt noise can trigger k-complexes. As people age, they have fewer sleep spindles, indicating that the brain must work to maintain sleep. Stage 3- delta waves. Progression to deep sleep, marked by large, regular brain patterns called delta waves(3 & 4). This period in slow-wave sleep are very hard to wake and often very disoriented when they do wake up. Stage 4- some people still process information in this stage, as the mind continues to evaluate the environment for potential danger. Parents can be aroused by their children’s cries, but ignore sounds, such as sirens or traffic noise. |
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when do you dream? theories of why we dream?
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REM sleep- the stage of sleep marked by rapid eye movements, dreaming, and paralysis of motor systems.
REM dreams are often bizarre and full of intense emotion. Non-REM dreams are often dull and about mundane activities. |
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why do we sleep?
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Restoration, circadian cycles, and facilitation of learning.
Restorative theory- sleep allows the brain and body to rest and to repair themselves. Circadian rhythms- the regulation of biological cycles into regular patterns. For example, body temperature, hormone levels, and sleep/wake cycles operate according to circadian rhythms. Circadian rhythm theory- proposes that sleep has evolved to keep animals quiet and inactive during times of the day when there is greatest danger, usually when it is dark. Facilitation of learning- sleep is important because it is involved in the strengthening of neural connections that serve as the basis of learning. The general idea is that circuits wired together during the waking period are consolidated, or strengthened, during sleep. |
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what biological mechanisms and brain structure(s) are responsible for regulating sleep/wake cycles?
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pineal gland- the biological clock signals the pineal gland to secrete melatonin, which affects bodily states related to being tired.
reticular formation- stimulating this in the brainstream leads to increased arousal in the cerebral cortex. Triggers arousal. basal forebrain- a small area just in front of the hypothalamus, may be involved in inducing non-REM sleep. Neurons in this area become more active during non-REM sleep, and any lesion in the area will lead to insomnia. Once activated, the region send inhibitory signals to the reticular formation, thereby reducing arousal and triggering sleep. |
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theories of hypnosis and meditation
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According to Hobson’s activation-synthesis hypothesis, random neural stimulation can activate mechanisms that normally interpret visual input. A theory of dreaming that proposes that neural stimulation from the pons activates mechanisms that normally interpret visual input.
Hypnosis- a social interaction during which a person, responding to suggestions, experiences changes in memory, perception, and/or voluntary action. Psychologists agree that hypnosis affects some people, but they do not agree on whether it produces a genuinely altered state of consciousness. Theories of hypnosis- sociocognitive theory of hypnosis- hypnotized people behave as they expect hypnotized people to behave, even if those expectations are faulty. Dissociation theory of hypnosis- views the hypnotic state as an altered state, namely a trancelike one in which conscious awareness is seperated, or dissociated, from other aspects of consciousness. Meditation- a mental procedure that focuses attention on an external object or on a sense of awareness. Concentrative meditation- you focus attention on one thing, such as your breathing pattern, a mental image, or a specific phrase(sometimes called mantra). Mindfulness meditation- you let your thoughts flow freely, paying attention to them but trying not to react to them. |
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know the major classes of drugs and their effect
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Psychoactive drugs- mind-altering substances that change the brain’s neurochemistry by activating neurotransmitter systems. Common ones are stimulants, depressants, narcotics, and hallucinogens.
Marijuana- the most widely used illegal drug in North America. Has THC, and provides relaxed mental state, , uplifted or contented mood, and some perceptual and cognitive distortions. Makes perceptions more vivid, and some say it especially affects taste. Most first-time users do not experience the “high” obtained by more experienced users. Relieves nausea and pain. Stimulants- drugs that increase behavioral and mental activity. They include caffeine and nicotine as well as cocaine and amphetamines. They activate the sympathetic nervous system (increasing heart rate and blood pressure), improve mood, cause people to become restless, and disrupt sleep. Cocaine. Can lead to paranoia, psychotic behavior, and violence. Amphetamines- synthesized using simple lab methods(speed, meth). Weight loss and staying awake, leads to insomnia, anxiety, and heart problems and highly addictive. Associated with dopamine release. MDMA- ecstasy, produces an energizing effect similar to that of stimulants but also causes slight hallucinations. Serotonin release. Ecstasy also depletes serotonin. Opiates- heroin, morphine, and codeine. Provide enormous reward value by increasing dopamine activation in the nucleus accumbens and binding with opiate receptors, producing feelings of relaxation, analgesia, and euphoria. Highly addictive. Opiates sometimes used to relieve pain. A number of neurological and cognitive deficits, such as attention and memory problems. Alcohol- most widely abused drug. |
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what is addiction
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Addiction- physical dependence- a psychological state in which failing to ingest a substance leads to symptoms of withdrawal, a state characterized by anxiety, tension, and craving. Physical dependence is associated with tolerance, so that a person needs to consume more of the substance to achieve the same side effect.
psychological dependence- habitual and compulsive substance use despite the consequences. People can be psychologically dependent without showing tolerance or withdrawal. |
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what is the difference between sensation and perception?
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Sensation- the sense organs’ responses to external stimuli and the transmission of these responses to the brain.
Perception- the processing, organization, and interpretation of sensory signals; it results in an internal representation of the stimulus. 1. Stimulus- a green light emits physical properties in the form of photons(light waves). 2. Sensation- Sensory receptors in the driver’s eyes detect this stimulus. 3. Sensory Coding- the stimulus is transduced (translated into chemical and electrical signals that are transmitted to the brain). 4. Perception- the driver’s brain processes the neural signals and constructs a representation of a green light ahead, which is interpreted as a sign to continue driving. |
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what are thresholds, jnd(just noticeable difference)?
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Absolute threshold- the minimum intensity of stimulation that must occur before you experience a sensation, or the stimulus intensity detected above chance. The absolute threshold for hearing is the faintest sound a person can detect 50% of the time. Taste- one teaspoon of sugar in 2 gallons of water. Smell- one drop of perfume diffused into the entire volume of six rooms. Touch- a fly’s wing falling on your cheek from a distance of 1 centimeter. Hearing- the tick of a clock at 20 feet under quiet conditions. Vision- a candle flame seen at 30 miles on a dark clear night.
Difference threshold(jnd)- the just noticeable difference between two stimuli--the minimum amount of change required for a person to detect a difference. If your friend is watching a television show while you are reading and a commercial comes on that is louder than the show, you might look up, noticing that something has changed. The difference threshold is the minimum change in volume required for you to detect a difference. Sensory threshold- either you saw something or you did not, depending on whether the intensity of the stimulus was above or below the sensory threshold. |
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what is sensory adaptation and why does it occur? why?
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Sensory adaption is a decrease in sensitivity to a constant level of stimulation. It exemplifies that the mind is adaptive. If you are studying in the library when work begins at a nearby construction site. When the equipment starts up, the sound seems particularly loud and disturbing. After a few minutes however, you hardly notice the noise; it seems to have faded into the background. If the construction noise halted, you would notice the silence.
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know the basic structures of the eye especially retina: rods and cones
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Retina- the thin inner surface of the back of the eyeball. The retina contains the photoreceptors that transduce light into neural signals.
Rods- retinal cells that respond to low levels of illumination and result in black-and-white perception. Low levels of illumination and are responsible primarily for night vision; they do not support color vision; and they resolve fine detail poorly. Cones- retinal cells that respond to higher levels of illumination and result in color perception. Cones are less sensitive to low levels of light; they are responsible primarily for vision under high illumination and for seeing both color and detail. |
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in what ways is color processed?
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The color of light is determined by the wavelength of the electromagnetic wave that reaches the eye. We see the light waves on objects reflect to our eyes. Shorter waves appear blue-violet. Medium length waves appear yellow-green. Longer waves appear red-orange.
Subtraction color mixing- a way to produce a given spectral pattern in which the mixture occurs within the stimulus itself and is actually a physical, not psychological, process. Physical process of color mixing that happens within the stimulus. Subtractive primary colors: red, yellow, blue. Additive color mixing- a way to produce a given spectral pattern in which different wavelengths of light are mixed. The percept is determined by the interaction of these wavelengths with receptors in the eye and is a psychological process. Mixing that happens when lights of different wavelengths are perceived by the eye. Additive primary colors: Red, green, blue. |
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know the principles of visual perception both monocular (gestalt, pictorial cues) & binocular (e.g linear perspective, convergence)
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Gestalt principles of perceptual organization. Perception is more than the result of accumulating sensory data. Gestalt means “shape” or “form”, but as used in psychology it means “organized whole”. Holds that our brains use innate (built in) principles to organize sensory information.
Proximity and similarity- principle of proximity-the closer two figures are to each other, the more likely we are to group them and see them as part of the same object. Principle of similarity- we tend to group figures according to how closely they resemble each other, wether in shape, color, or orientation. We tend to cluster elements of the visual scene, enabling us to consider them as wholes rather than individual parts. Good continuation- we tend to interpret intersecting lines as continues. Closure- we tend to complete figures even when gaps don’t exist. Illusory contours- we tend to perceive contours even when they do not exist. Binocular depth cues- cues of depth perception that arise from the fact that people have two eyes. Monocular depth cues- cues of depth perception that are available to each eye alone. Occlusion- a near object occludes(blocks) an object that is farther away. Relative size-far-off objects project a smaller retinal image than close objects do. Familiar size- we know how large familiar objects are, so we can tell how far away they are by the size of their retinal images. Linear perspective- parallel lines appear to converge in the distance. Texture gradient- as a uniformly textured surface recedes, its texture continuously becomes denser. Position relative to horizon- all else being equal, objects below the horizon that appear higher in the visual field are perceived as being farther away. Binocular disparity- a cue of depth perception that is caused by the distance between a person’s eyes, which provides each eye with a slightly different image. The visual stem sees every object from two distinct vantage point: The distance between retinal images of objects A and B is different in the left eye...from the distance between A and B in the right eye. This is an important cue for depth. |
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what does the Ames room show us about perception
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Ames boxes present powerful depth illusions. These boxes elaborate on the Victorian trick in which a person looking through a peephole would see a furnished room and then open the door to find the room empty--with a dollhouse room nailed to the door. Inside the Ames boxes, rooms play with linear perspective and other distance cues.
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what are the cutaneous/haptic (skin) sensations?
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Haptic sense- sense of touch.
1. Stimuli- when you touch something, your skin registers the temperature and the pressure. 2. Receptor- temperature and pressure receptors in your skin transmit that signal.. 3. Pathway to the brain- along the cranial nerve (for touch above the neck) or the spinal nerve (for touch below the neck), through the thalamus, to other areas of your brain. 4. Resulting perception- as a result, you know ho the touch feels. Tactile stimulation- anything that makes contact with our skin provides this. |
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how is pain perceived?
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Stimuli- when you touch something painful, you register pain with two types of receptors. 2. Receptors- fast fibers(with myelination) register sharp, fast pain. Slow fibers(without myelination) register duller, more diffuse pain. 3. Pathway to the brain- according to gate control theory, neutral “gates” in the spinal cord allow signals through, and those gates can be closed when information about touch is being transmitted (e.g., by rubbing a sore arm) or by distraction.
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cortex region for vision? audition?
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Audition- the sense of sound perception.
Primary auditory cortex (A1, for the first auditory area) which is in the temporal lobe. Primary visual cortex(V1) is in the Occipital lobe. |
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top down vs bottom up processing
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top-down processing- a hierarchical model of pattern recognition in which data are relayed from one processing level to the next, always moving to a higher level of processing.
Bottom-up processing- a hierarchical model of pattern recognition in which information at higher levels of processing can also influence lower, “earlier” levels in the processing hierarchy. |
