Ps Exam 2

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theory of gradual differentiation

Back 1

the view that infants are born only with general emotional reactions, which differentiate into basic emotions over the first two years

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differential emotions theory

Back 2

the view that basic emotions are innate and emerge in their adult form, either at birth or on a biologically determined timetable

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ontogenetic adaptation

Back 3

something that has evolved because it contributes to survival and normal development; in one view, infant emotions are ontogenetic adaptations

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primary intersubjectivity

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organized, reciprocal interaction between an infant and caregiver with the interaction itself as the focus

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exogenous smile

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occurs when asleep of drowsy
appears around 2-3 months
associated with internal, physiological fluctuations

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mirror neurons

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special brain cells that fire when an individual sees or hears another perform an action, just as they would if the individual were performing the same action

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secondary intersubjectivity

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a form of interaction between infant and caregiver, emerging at about 9-12 months, with communication and emotional sharing focused not just on the interaction but the world beyond

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perceptual scaffolding

Back 8

the way in which a familiar word serves as an anchor for learning new words that come immediately before or after it

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babbling

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a form or vocalizing, beginning at around 7 months, in which infants utter strings of syllables that combine a consonant sound and a vowel sound

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self-conscious emotions

Back 10

emotions such as embarrassment, pride, shame, guilt, and envy, which emerge after 8 months with infants' growing consciousness of self

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infant-directed speech

Back 11

speech adults use with infants, characterized by high pitched, exaggerated intonation, clear boundaries between parts, and simplified vocabulary

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infant-directed speech

Back 12

aka motherese or baby-talk
speech adults use with infants, characterized by high pitch, exaggerated intonation, clear boundaries between parts, and simplified vocabulary

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phonological development

Back 13

learning to segment speech into meaningful units of sound

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semantic development

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learning meanings of words and combinations of words

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grammar

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the rules of a given language for the sequencing of words in a sentence and the ordering of parts of words

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pragmatic development

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learning the conventions that govern the use of language in particular social contexts

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overextension

Back 17

a term for the error of applying verbal labels too broadly

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underextension

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a term used for applying verbal labels in a narrower way than adults do

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fast mapping

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the way in which children quickly form an idea of the meaning of an unfamiliar word they hear in a familiar and highly structured social interaction

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synaptic bootstrapping

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use of knowledge of grammar to figure our the meaning of new words

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receptive vocabulary

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the vocabulary children understand

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grammatical morphemes

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words and parts of words that create meaning by showing the relations between other elements with the sentence

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conversational data

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actions that achieve goals through language

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protoimperatives

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early conversational acts whose purpose is to get another person to do something

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protodeclaratives

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early conversational acts whose purpose is to establish joint attention and sustain dialogue

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chronology

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a simple story structure used by young children, in which they present a sequence of concrete events

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cultural modeling

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culturally specific ways of telling stories

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language acquisition device (LAD)

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Chomsky's term for an innate language processing capacity that is programmed to recognize the universal rules that underlie any particular language that a child might hear

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formats

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recurrent socially patterned activities in which adult and child do things together

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language acquisition support system (LASS)

Back 30

Bruner's term for the parental behaviors and formatted events within which children acquire language
It is the environmental complement to the innate, biologically constituted LAD

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collective monologues

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communications in which young children each voice their own thoughts without attending to what they are saying

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true dialogue

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a communication in which each person's utterances take into account the utterances of others

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motor drive

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the pleasure young children take in using their new motor skills

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food insecure

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lacking enough food to ensure good health

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scale error

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young children's inappropriate use of objects due to their failure to consider information about the object's size

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mental operations

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in piaget's theory, the mental process of combining, separating, or transforming information in a logical manner

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preoperational stage

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according to piaget, the stage of thinking between infancy and middle childhood in which children are unable to decenter their thinking or think through the consequences of an action

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centration

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young children's tendency to focus on only one feature of an object to the exclusion of all other features

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decentration

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the cognitive ability to pull away from focusing on just one feature of an object in order to consider multiple features

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objectivity

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the mental distancing made possible by decentration, and which piaget believed to be the major goal of all cognitive development

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egocentrism

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in piagets terms, "to center on oneself," to consider the world entirely in terms of one's own point of view

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precausal thinking

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piaget's description of the reasoning of young children that does not follow the procedures of either deductive or inductive reasoning

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elaborative style

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a form of talking with children about new events or experiences that enhance children's memories for those events and experiences

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privileged domains

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cognitive domains that call upon specialized kinds of information, require specifically designated forms of reasoning, and appear to be of evolutionary importance to the human species

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theory of mind

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the ability to think about other people's mental states and form theories of how they think

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false-belief task

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a technique used to assess children's theory of mind that involves asking children about stories in which either the character or the child him or herself is fooled into believing something that is not true

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mental modules

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innate mental faculties that receive inputs

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theory theory

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the theory that young children have primitive theories about how the world works, which influence how children think about and act within specific domains

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psychodynamic theories

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theories, such as those of Freud and Erikson, exploring the influence on developmental stages of universal biological drives and the life experiences or individuals

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constructivist theory

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piaget's theory, in which cognitive development results from children's active construction of reality based on their experiences with the world

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personality formation

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the process through which children develop their own unique patterns of feeling, thinking, and behaving in a wide variety of circumstances

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initiative versus guilt

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according to erikson's theory, the stage in early childhood during which children face the challenge of continuing to declare their autonomy and existence as individuals, but in ways that begin to conform the social roles and moral standards of society

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phallic stage

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in freudian theory, the period around the fourth year where children begin to regard their own genitals as a major source of pleasure

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oedipus stage

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in freudian theory, the fear, guilt, and conflict evoked by a little boy's desire to get rid of his father and take the father's place in his mothers affections

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electra complex

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according to freud's theory of sex-role development, the process by which girls blame their mother for their "castrated" condition, transfer their love to their father, and compete with their mother for their father's affection

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differential reinforcement

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the process by which girls and boys are differently rewarded for engaging in gender-appropriate behavior

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gender schema

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a mental model containing information about males and females that is used to process gender-relevant information

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ethnic identity

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a sense of belonging to an ethnic group, and the feelings and attitudes that accompany the sense of group membership

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personal identity

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a person's sense of themselves as persisting over time, and their sense of personal characteristics such as appearance and abilities that can be objectively known

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id

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Freud
the mental structure present at birth that is the main source of psychological energy; it is unconscious and pleasure seeking and demands that bodily drives be satisfied

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ego

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Freud
this is the mental structure that develops out of the id as the infant forced by reality to cope with the social world
primary task: self-preservation, which it accomplished through voluntary movement, perception, logical thought, adaptation, and problem solving

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superego

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Freud
the conscience
represents the authority of the social group and sits in stern judgement of the ego's efforts to hold the id in check
becomes a major force in the personality in middle school

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heteronomous morality

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Piaget's term for young children tendency to define morality in terms of objective consequences and externally imposed controls

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social domain theory

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the moral domain, the social conventional domain, and the personal domain have distinct rules that vary in how broadly the rules apply, and what happens when they are broken

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self-regulation

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the ability to control one's thoughts, emotions, and behaviors

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effortful control

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the inhibition of an action that is already underway

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sociodramatic play

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make-believe play in which two of more participants enact a variety of related social roles

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socioemotional competence

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the ability to behave appropriately in social situations that evoke strong emotions

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hostile aggression

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aggression that is aimed at hurting another person as a way of establishing dominance, which may gain aggressor advantages in the long run

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instrumental aggression

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aggression that is directed at obtaining something

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relational aggression

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indirect aggression intended to harm someone's friendships or exclude an individual from the group

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prosocial behavior

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behavior such as sharing, helping, caregiving, and showing compassion

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empathy

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sharing another person's emotions or feelings

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sympathy

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feelings of sorrow or concern for another

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personal distress

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a self-focused emotional reaction to another person's distress

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no-nonsense parenting

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parenting characterized by a mix of high parental control, including punishment, and warmth, and associated with african american single mothers

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authoritarian parenting pattern

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parenting style identified by Baumrind that focuses on enforcing obedience and conformity to traditional standards, including by use of punishment, and that is lacking in verbal give-and-take with children and in expression of warmth

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authoritative parenting pattern

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parenting style identified by baumrind in which parents set standards and limits for children but also encourage discussion and independence, and express warmth

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permissive parenting pattern

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parenting style identified by baumrind in which parents express warmth but do not exercise control over their childrens behavior