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118 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
What is ontology?
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Ontology is the study of being and examines ideas related to human existence, the nature of being and social reality, for example "what are the realities you have to deal with being a college student?" The fundamental questions in the field of ontology are "what can be said to exist?" and "what is existence?"
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_____ is the study of being, examines ideas related to human existence, and the nature of being and social reality.
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ontology
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What is epistemology?
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Epistemology is the philosophical study of knowledge and what is valid knowledge, for example "what is knowledge and do we get it in the classroom?" The key questions in the field of epistemology are "what is knowledge, and how is it acquired?" or, put another way, "how do I know the world?"
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_____ is the philosophical study of knowledge and what is valid knowledge, for example "what is knowledge and do we get it in the classroom?" The key questions in this field are "what is knowledge, and how is it acquired?" or, put another way, "how do I know the world?'
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epistemology
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What is methodology?
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Methodology relates to the ways in which knowledge is acquired and looks at the principles, rules, and procedures of a field/discipline such as public relations, for example "what are the ethical guidelines in PR?" the key question of methodology is "How do we know?"
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_____ relates to the ways in which knowledge is acquired and looks at the principles, rules, and procedures of a field/discipline such as public relations.
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methodology
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the key question of _____ is "How do we know?"
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methodology
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What is a paradigm?
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A paradigm is a set of beliefs, values, techniques, etc. shared by members of a given community. Paradigms are different ways of defining communication, social realities, and how best to research them.
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different ways of defining communication, social realities, and how best to research them
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paradigms
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a set of beliefs, values, techniques, etc. shared by members of a given community
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paradigm
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What is positivism?
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Positivism is a paradigm which is always quantitative. Positivism states that an objective reality exists, the world is external to the researcher and wiating to be discovered. Positivism is looking for patterns and regularities to explain communicative behaviors, findings are generalizable, and the researcher does not let their beliefs/values into research. For example, survey research or content analysis.
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_____ is a paradigm that is always quantitative; states that an objective reality exists, the world is external to the researcher and waiting to be discovered. It is looking for patterns and regularities to explain communicative behaviors, findings are generalizable, and the researcher does not let their beliefs/values into research. For example, survey research or content analysis.
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positivism
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What is interpretivism?
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Interpretivism is a paradigm which is always qualitative. Interpretivism is seeking to establish a distinct, unique approach to the world. Interpretivism deals with multiple realities constructed by individuals through interaction, and therefore cannot generalize findings. The goal of interpretivism is to uncover meanings by which individuals understand their own experiences, behavior, and communication.
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_____ is a paradigm which is always qualitative. It is seeking to establish a distinct, unique approach to the world. It deals with multiple realities constructed by individuals through interaction, and therefore cannot generalize findings. The goal is to uncover meanings by which individuals understand their own experiences, behavior, and communication.
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interpretivism
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What is critical-interpretive research/critical studies?
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A paradigm which is usually a mixed methodology design with both qualitative and quantitative, for example the diversity study. Critical-interpretive research looks only at power and inequality in society. In critical-interpretive research, reality is determined by social, political, economic, ethnic, and gender values and inequalities. The goal of critical-interpretive research is to reveal hidden agendas, for example any "ism" (racism, etc.)
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_____ is a paradigm which is usually a mixed methodology design with both qualitative and quantitative, for example the diversity study. It looks only at power and inequality in society. In it, reality is determined by social, political, economic, ethnic, and gender values and inequalities. The goal is to reveal hidden agendas, for example any "ism" (racism, etc.).
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critical-interpretive research/critical studies
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What is grounded theory research?
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Grounded theory research is used if you want your theory to develop as you gather data. It is used when little is known about a topic or behavior (for example, coming out theory). Grounded theory research can be used with observation, interviews, and other forms of research.
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_____ is used if you want your theory to develop as you gather data. It is used when little is known about a topic or behavior (for example, coming out theory). It can be used with observation, interviews, and other forms of research.
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grounded theory research
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What is an ethnography?
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Ethnography is used if you are studying a particular culture or sub-culture, for example an organization or a small group of people with shared norms and beliefs. Ethnography can be used with observation, interviewing, and collecting and analyzing documents.
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_____ is used if you are studying a particular culture or sub-culture, for example an organization or a small group of people with shared norms and beliefs. It can be used with observation, interviewing, and collecting and analyzing documents.
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ethnography
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What is action research?
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Action research is used if you want to bring about change in professional practices, for example a SWOT analysis. Essentially, researchers plan an intervention in their workplace, such as creating a plan for change communication, then they implement and evaluate this. The aim is to develop best practice as well as contribute to new knowledge about professional communication.
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_____ is used if you want to bring about change in professional practices, for example a SWOT analysis. It aims to bring about change in professional practice and is often carried out by students who are studying part time while also working in public relations or marketing communications. The aim is to develop best practice as well as contribute to new knowledge about professional communication.
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action research
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What is case study research?
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Case study research is interested in examining an issue, event, process, or problem within a particular context. It seeks to holistically explain how multiple aspects, influences, processes and relationships “fit together.” Each case is a “snapshot” that when put together provides a full story. Case study research is often associated with a location, a set of people (social or professional group), an organization, or a community and is not used as often as it should be in PR and marketing research.
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_____ is interested in examining an issue, event, process, or problem within a particular context. It seeks to holistically explain how multiple aspects, influences, processes and relationships “fit together.” Each is a “snapshot” that when put together provides a full story. It is often associated with a location, a set of people (social or professional group), an organization, or a community and is not used as often as it should be in PR and marketing research.
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case study research
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What are the 10 distinguishing characteristics of case studies?
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(1.) deep, narrow EXPLORATION, (2.) focus on REAL EVENTS in real or past time, or both, (3.) bounded by PLACE AND TIME, (4.) either a SNAPSHOT or a LONGITUDINAL STUDY OF EVENTS with a past and present, (5.) multiple SOURCES OF INFORMATION and multiple viewpoints, (6.) DETAILED and descriptive, (7.) HOLISTIC view, exploring relationships and connections, (8.) focus on the TAKEN-FOR-GRANTED as well as the significant and unusual, (9.) useful for THEORY BUILDING or theory testing, (10.) EXTENDABILITY: the extent to which the case resonates with readers so that they are able to extend their understanding of their own experiences
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the extent to which the case resonates with readers so that they are able to increase their understanding of their own experiences
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extendability
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What is a single case study?
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The single case study involves small numbers investigated in depth at a single point in time or over time, for example 1 department in an organization.
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the _____ involves small numbers investigated in depth at a single point in time or over time, for example 1 department in an organization.
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single case study
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in choosing the case itself to select, you make the decision either due to _____ (the case itself is interesting and accessible) or because of _____ (using the case to facilitate your understanding of something else).
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intrinsic interest; instrumental reasons
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when you select a case for primarily practical reasons or because it is the most convenient or accessible setting for exploring your research topic
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intrinsic interest
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when your search for an appropriate case is driven by your determination to find a context which illustrates some practical or theoretical feature or process about which you are concerned, or which provides a site for theory testing
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instrumental reasons
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if you are examining a company, you need to describe the organization, its social boundaries (membership and formal structure), and physical boundaries (specific site/building). If you are examining an event, you need to describe clients, sponsors of the event, and exhibitions.
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place (in case study research)
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there needs to be a clear beginning and end -- what period of time are you examining? Short period of time or longitudinal? Justify your decision.
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time (in case study research)
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Case studies are bounded or fairly self-contained, and therefore when you have selected your case or cases you need to be able to identify, and write about, the relevant boundaries of _____ and _____.
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time; place
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in place for a case study research, you need to define its _____ boundaries (membership and formal structure), and _____ boundaries (specific site/building)
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social; physical
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True or false? Generalizations are not possible with case study research.
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false; it is difficult to make generalizations based on 1-2 cases; however, a reader may be able to identify with something you write or find, therefore generalizations are possible.
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Traditionally, social scientists’ preoccupation with generalization as an essential aspect of research has led to some criticism of case studies for their limited _____.
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generalizability
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True or false? Endeavoring to transfer ideas to a broader realm is always the concern of case study researchers.
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false; instead, case researchers may be more interested in focusing only on the arena of the case itself in order to provide a “thick” description of the complex processes and influences within a particular context.
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True or false? on the whole, it is desirable to aim for some generalization of case study findings in order to show their more general relevance.
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true
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In analyzing case studies, you are searching for _____ in the case(s).
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common themes
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if your research design includes multiple case studies you will be searching each case for _____ or dimensions that straddle across the others. What you are aiming to do is put these into groups or clusters so that you can compare similarities and differences among the cases.
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themes
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In case study research we (can/cannot) throw out negative cases or alternative cases.
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cannot
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Why can we not throw out negative or alternative cases?
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We explore why it is different, which sometimes can give us BETTER data.
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A case study must provide a _____ account -- including the historic nature of the case, observed the phenomenon, highlighted "_____"/alternative explanations, and allowed all voices to be heard.
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comprehensive; negative cases
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What are the three limitations of case study research?
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(1.) BOUNDARIES; hard to decide which cases to INCLUDE and not include (who is involved with the phenomenon under investigation and who is not, or when a case study begins and ends), (2.) ACCESS; getting companies to HAND OVER DOCUMENTS, especially confidential documents is difficult (negotiating access to settings may be problematic; companies are often unwilling to allow researchers entry on the grounds that confidential information may leak into the public arena), (3.) accused of being TOO DESCRIPTIVE and NOT GENERALIZABLE
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the process of bringing order to this great variety of data by organizing, structuring, and construing meaning is what researchers call "_____."
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qualitative data analysis
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starting with your raw data, you use analytic procedures to transform them into something meaningful, thereby gaining understanding
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qualitative data analysis
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The _____ stage of research is where you offer your own, creative insights into the meaning of what you have found, and therefore it is primarily in this section that you show the originality of your work.
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analysis and interpretation
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What three things is qualitative data analysis concerned with?
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(1.) data management and organization, (2.) asking questions of the data, (3.) interpretation
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bringing meaning and insight to the words and acts of participants in the study by generating concepts and theories (or theory-based generalizations) which explain the findings. The key question to ask and answer at this point is: “So what does this finding mean in the light of the literature and my main research questions?” You then communicate the meaning of your findings to others through your written report.
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interpretation
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giving insight and meaning to words
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interpreting data
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What 3 things are you doing when interpreting data?
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explaining data, comparing your findings with previous, and developing theory
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What are you doing with qualitative data?
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coding data into themes, patterns, and categories
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In qualitative analysis, we are answering what three questions of the data?
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(1.) "WHAT's going on?", (2.) "WHO is saying it?", and (3.) "WHERE/WHEN is it happening?"
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_____ is when you record and label fieldnotes systematically.
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organizing the data
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It is important to check that you have _____ and _____ everything in a _____ manner. This helps to keep your data intact, complete, organized, and retrievable. This is invaluable when you come to identify categories, piece together patterns, and plan for further data collection.
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recorded; labeled; systematic
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involves deciding what words you will use to label the ideas or themes in your data (after reading data multiple times)
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coding and categorizing data
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coding and categorizing involves the process of _____, writing notes to stimulate thinking and maintain momentum.
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memoing
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What is one limitation of coding and how should you combat this?
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that some data may not fit into code; to combat this, you should create a system that accounts for this (as data that does not fit can still be beneficial) or set up a system to reject those that do not fit.
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a central and important process in qualitative analysis whereby you make choices about what words you will use to label the ideas or themes you see repeatedly in your data
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coding
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True or false? Coding starts immediately.
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false
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in this stage, you are asking "is your interpretation of the data understandable, meaningful, and credible?"
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evaluating your interpretations
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What three things are you doing when you evaluate your interpretations?
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(1.) searching for NEGATIVE CASES and alternative explanations -- challenging your themes and patterns, (2.) MEMBER CHECKING -- ask respondents to read your written interpretation and provide feedback, and (3.) be REFLEXIVE
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Nvivo, ATLAS.ti, QSR NUD*IST, and Ethnograph are all examples of
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computer software programs used only in qualitative research
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with these programs, you determine codes and the software program groups like statements together
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qualitative computer software programs
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Software designed to assist the analysis of qualitative is known by the acronym _____.
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CAQDAS (cactus)
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What are the three steps in the process of analyzing and interpreting data?
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(1.) collecting, (2.) analyzing, (3.) interpreting and explaining data
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What are the three steps in the process of analyzing and interpreting data?
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(1.) collecting, (2.) analyzing, (3.) interpreting and explaining data
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When interpreting data, you are doing what three things?
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(1.) EXPLAINING data so that others can understand what you have discovered, (2.) developing a THEORY OR MODEL of how and why something happened, and (3.) COMPARING your findings with previous research findings
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When interpreting data, you are doing what three things?
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(1.) EXPLAINING data so that others can understand what you have discovered, (2.) developing a THEORY OR MODEL of how and why something happened, and (3.) COMPARING your findings with previous research findings
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When writing the qualitative research report, you are writing to _____ and _____.
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persuade; inform
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How is writing the qualitative research report persuasive?
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you are trying to convince others that you have a complete pictures and significant contribution
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the research report is a _____ document which aims to convince readers of the quality and importance of your work.
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persuasive
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The _____ tells readers what you did, why you did it, how you did it, what you found out, what it means, and why it’s important.
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report
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When writing the final report, you should always write in _____ person unless told otherwise.
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first
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writing the final report, writing in _____ indicates how involved you were in the research process; bear in mind that many PR reports are written in _____ person
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first; third
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What is an abstract?
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The abstract is a 2-paragraph summary of your article that includes the research question and aim, importance, methods, main findings, and implications.
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a 2-paragraph summary of your article that includes the research question and aim, importance, methods, main findings, and implications
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abstract
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The abstract should contain a brief overview of what 5 things?
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(1.) the RESEARCH QUESTION and aim, (2.) why the topic is IMPORTANT and worth studying, (3.) the METHODS you have adopted, (4.) the MAIN FINDINGS of your study, (5.) the IMPLICATIONS in light of other research
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What are the appendices?
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The appendices may be a list of participants with names changed, a list of organizations, interview guide/protocol, fieldnotes, or all of the above.
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may be a list of participants with names changed, a list of organizations, interview guide/protocol, fieldnotes, or all of the above
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appendices
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For clarification and interest, it is useful to include what 5 things in the appendices?
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(1.) a LIST OF PARTICIPANTS (with pseudonyms if necessary), with their ages, experience or length of service if relevant, (2.) a LIST OF ORGANIZATIONS (perhaps with pseudonyms) involved in your research, (3.) an INTERVIEW GUIDE, (4.) a SAMPLE INTERVIEW TRANSCRIPT if your study employed the interview method, (5.) possibly some FIELDNOTES from observations to demonstrate their use
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in qualitative research, the _____ are the most important elements of the final write-up, and in consequence these sections contain more words than the others
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findings and discussion
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What are the 11 components of the academic write-up?
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(1.) title, (2.) abstract, (3.) acknowledgment and dedication, (4.) table of contents, (5.) introduction, (6.) literature review, (7.) methodology, (8.) findings/results and discussion, (9.) conclusion, (10.) references, (11.) appendices
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What are the 11 components of the academic write-up?
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(1.) title, (2.) abstract, (3.) acknowledgment and dedication, (4.) table of contents, (5.) introduction, (6.) literature review, (7.) methodology, (8.) findings/results and discussion, (9.) conclusion, (10.) references, (11.) appendices
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What are the 4 main differences between the academic and professional report?
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(1.) professional reports are often SHORTER IN LENGTH than academic reports, (2.) professional reports have a style of writing that is DETACHED, "PUNCHIER," AND MORE CONDENSED, sentences and paragraphs are shorter, (3.) the presentation INVOLVES MORE BULLET POINTS AND DIAGRAMS than are usually in an academic report, and (4.) there is usually LESS EMPHASIS ON THE METHODOLOGY AND MORE ON THE RECOMMENDATIONS
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What are the 4 main differences between the academic and professional report?
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(1.) professional reports are often SHORTER IN LENGTH than academic reports, (2.) professional reports have a style of writing that is DETACHED, "PUNCHIER," AND MORE CONDENSED, sentences and paragraphs are shorter, (3.) the presentation INVOLVES MORE BULLET POINTS AND DIAGRAMS than are usually in an academic report, and (4.) there is usually LESS EMPHASIS ON THE METHODOLOGY AND MORE ON THE RECOMMENDATIONS
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What are the 7 components of the professional report?
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(1.) title, (2.) executive summary, (3.) table of contents, (4.) introduction and methodology, (5.) findings, (6.) discussion and conclusion, (7.) appendices
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What are the 7 components of the professional report?
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(1.) title, (2.) executive summary, (3.) table of contents, (4.) introduction and methodology, (5.) findings, (6.) discussion and conclusion, (7.) appendices
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What is the executive summary?
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In a professional report, there is an executive summary rather than an abstract. The executive summary is usually one or two pages long and provides an overview of the report, with the emphasis on the findings and implications. Key issues are also highlighted through the use of bullet points.
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in a professional report, there is an _____ rather than an abstract.
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executive summary
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usually one or two pages long and provides an overview of the report, with the emphasis on the findings and implications
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executive summary
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with _____, usually you are collecting and analyzing data at the same time
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mixed methodology research
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What is mixed methodology research?
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Mixed methods research is when researchers combine qualitative and quantitative approaches in one empirical study, drawing pragmatically on distinct research paradigms.
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when researchers combine qualitative and quantitative approaches in one empirical study, drawing pragmatically on distinct research paradigms
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mixed methodology research
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What are the 4 strengths of mixed methodology research?
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(1.) examine a VARIETY OF ASPECTS AND LEVELS in 1 study (its multidimensional nature), (2.) can answer CONFIRMATORY AND EXPLORATORY QUESTIONS AT THE SAME TIME, verify and generate theory at the time, (3.) provides VERY RICH DATA by establishing what is happening, how it is happening, and why it is happening, (4.) it has the potential to OVERCOME SOME OF THE LIMITATIONS OF MONOMETHOD RESEARCh, for example enabling you to engage with wider contextual or structural aspects
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What are the 4 strengths of mixed methodology research?
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(1.) examine a VARIETY OF ASPECTS AND LEVELS in 1 study (its multidimensional nature), (2.) can answer CONFIRMATORY AND EXPLORATORY QUESTIONS AT THE SAME TIME, verify and generate theory at the time, (3.) provides VERY RICH DATA by establishing what is happening, how it is happening, and why it is happening, (4.) it has the potential to OVERCOME SOME OF THE LIMITATIONS OF MONOMETHOD RESEARCh, for example enabling you to engage with wider contextual or structural aspects
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What is sequential exploratory design?
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starts with qualitative, then quantitative. Using qualitative to inform quantitative. Helpful when you are not sure what to include in a survey.
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starts with qualitative, then quantitative. Using qualitative to inform quantitative. Helpful when you are not sure what to include in a survey.
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sequential exploratory design
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in a _____, usually you start with qualitative strategies in order to explore and illuminate a particular phenomenon or process. You then follow up with quantitative strategies to expand on the findings, to show generalizability or to test either the propositions or the grounded theoretical model you developed in the qualitative phase. Quantitative methods, such as a survey, can also illustrate the extent to which the phenomenon you have explored in the first phase occurs more widely within a particular population.
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sequential exploratory design
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What is sequential explanatory design?
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collect and analyze quantitative data, then based on these results, create qualitative data to get a more in-depth understanding. Helpful when you want to gain an overview of what is going on then find out why it is happening.
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collect and analyze quantitative data, then based on these results, create qualitative data to get a more in-depth understanding. Helpful when you want to gain an overview of what is going on then find out why it is happening.
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sequential explanatory design
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a more conventional form of mixed methods research. This is where you collect and analyze quantitative data and, based on the results, use a qualitative approach to gain more depth and interpretive possibilities for the study. This type of research is particularly useful when you want to explain some of the relationships uncovered through an analysis of the data derived from a survey or the existence of a surprising pattern that you have discovered in the data, or alternatively if you want to uncover the process the created an unexpected pattern
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sequential explanatory design
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in this type of design, quantitative strategies have priority, driving and informing the qualitative stage; therefore the results of the study can be generalized.
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sequential explanatory design
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What is concurrent design?
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both qualitative and quantitative are collected and analyzed at the same time. Use 1 method to confirm the other. “Triangulating” the data.
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both qualitative and quantitative are collected and analyzed at the same time. Use 1 method to confirm the other. “Triangulating” the data.
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concurrent design
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when _____ procedures are carried out, both qualitative and quantitative data are collected at the same time.
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concurrent
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you integrate and interpret the information you gather through both methods simultaneously, using one distinct research strategy to validate or confirm the other.
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concurrent design
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What are the 9 steps in the mixed methodology process?
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(1.) reflect on the APPROPRIATENESS of mixed methods, (2.) give a JUSTIFICATION for mixed methods, (3.) select which mixed methods DESIGN/TYPE you want to use, (4.) choose an appropriate SAMPLE for both qualitative and quantitative, (5.) COLLECT DATA based on the design you select, (6.) complete DATA ANALYSIS, (7.) INTERPRET data, (8.) establish VALIDITY and trustworthiness of findings, (9.) report FINDINGS in a formal write-up
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What are the 9 steps in the mixed methodology process?
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(1.) reflect on the APPROPRIATENESS of mixed methods, (2.) give a JUSTIFICATION for mixed methods, (3.) select which mixed methods DESIGN/TYPE you want to use, (4.) choose an appropriate SAMPLE for both qualitative and quantitative, (5.) COLLECT DATA based on the design you select, (6.) complete DATA ANALYSIS, (7.) INTERPRET data, (8.) establish VALIDITY and trustworthiness of findings, (9.) report FINDINGS in a formal write-up
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One way to establish validity in the mixed methodology process is _____.
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member checking
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establishing the validity and trustworthiness of the findings in mixed methodology research includes the _____, _____, and _____ for qualitative findings.
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audit trail; member check; reflexivity
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establishing the validity and trustworthiness of the findings in mixed methodology research for quantitative findings includes procedures such as _____ and the inclusion of a _____.
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probability sampling; control group
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it is _____ to integrate both quantitative and qualitative; methods/theories/philosophical approaches may _____.
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difficult; clash
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True or false? Many combinations of mixed methods are difficult to integrate or blend.
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true
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What are two criticisms of mixed methodology research?
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(1.) it is DIFFICULT TO INTEGRATE BOTH -- methods/theories/philosophical approaches may clash, (2.) it is TIME-CONSUMING AND COMPLEX
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True or false? Because qualitative, quantitative, and even different qualitative approaches diverse in their underlying beliefs, they are not always suited to incorporation within a mixed methods study.
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true
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What is the best and easiest way to establish validity in mixed methodology research?
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member checking
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