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286 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
The term _____ refers to a totality of units such as people, organizations, communication departments, brands, media reports, or advertisements.
population
refers to a totality of units such as people, organizations, communication departments, brands, media reports, or advertisements
population
a totality of units
population
How do we define a population?
as a totality of units such as people, organizations, communication departments, brands, media reports, or advertisements.
What are the three most important dimensions on which sampling takes place?
(1.) setting, (2.) time, (3.) people
What are the 7 sampling dimensions?
(1.) setting, (2.) events, activities, and processes, (3.) issues, (4.) time, (5.) people, (6.) issues and artefacts, (7.) concepts
What are the 7 sampling dimensions?
(1.) setting, (2.) events, activities, and processes, (3.) issues, (4.) time, (5.) people, (6.) issues and artefacts, (7.) concepts
the sampling dimensions related to _____ refer to the conditions or sites within which the rest of your data are situated
settings
sampling dimension that refers to stages or sequences, or different rhythms of this
time
What is the most important sampling unit?
people
the sampling parameter related to _____ refers to the characteristics of the abstract ideas that you have elicited from your reading and data collection
concepts
an example of this sampling dimension is a country or place where advertising practices are distinctive
setting
an example of this sampling dimension is a public relations consultancy with novel practices
setting
an example of this sampling dimension is an occupational or corporate culture
setting
an example of this sampling dimension is communication interactions between managers and staff, or customers
events, activities, processes
an example of this sampling dimension is new business pitches
events, activities, processes
an example of this sampling dimension is designing a promotional campaign
events, activities, processes
an example of this sampling dimension is trends in environmental awareness by stakeholders
issues
an example of this sampling dimension is a potentially emergent crisis
issues
an example of this sampling dimension is six months before and after the execution of a campaign
time
an example of this sampling dimension is morning and afternoon
time
an example of this sampling dimension is people with certain roles, e.g. clients of advertising agencies, or journalists
people
an example of this sampling dimension is people with experience of media relations
people
an example of this sampling dimension is people who use social media
people
an example of this sampling dimension is media releases and news stories
materials and artefacts
an example of this sampling dimension is corporate reports and documents
materials and artefacts
an example of this sampling dimension is photos, websites, architecture, and physical symbols
materials and artefacts
an example of this sampling dimension is abstract ideas drawn from both your literature review and data collection
concepts
What is the goal of purposeful/purposive sampling?
to gain understanding about the experiences of a specific group of individuals
The goal of _____ is to gain understanding about the experiences of a specific group of individuals.
purposeful/purposive sampling
the idea that participants share similar experiences or characteristics and that you need to select those that are willing to share those experiences
purposeful/purposive samples
whom you select for your study, where and when depends on judgments you make which are guided by the purpose of your study; therefore, the phrase _____ or _____ is applied.
purposive; purposeful sampling
people that belong to the same subculture/group and have similar characteristics
homogeneous sample
in a _____, people belong to the same subculture/group and have similar characteristics
homogeneous sample
useful when you wish to observe or interview a particular group, for instance specialists in a field or elite group members
homogeneous sample
something may be this kind of sample with respect to a certain variable only
homogeneous sample
for example, selecting 20 people on the basis that they had occupied senior positions in marketing
homogeneous sample
individuals or groups of people who differ from each other in a major way
heterogeneous sample
in a _____, individuals or groups of people differ from each other in a major way
heterogeneous sample
for example, comparing perceptions about work experiences of career copywriters with freelance copywriters
heterogeneous sample
also called maximum variance sampling because it involves a search for variations in settings and for individuals with widely differing experiences of a particular phenomenon
heterogenous sample
it not only reflects diversity but also makes it easier to draw comparisons
heterogenous sampling/maximum variance sampling
for example, comparing experiences of 18 managers who have experience of the same phenomenon of sourcing products but from different countries
heterogeneous sample
where you find one participant through another
snowball or chain sample
for example, you might ask someone you have just interviewed to suggest another person who has knowledge of a particular area or topic and would be willing to take part in your study. In turn, he or she nominates other individuals for the research.
snowball or chain sample
for example, recruiting senior marketers who refer you to additional contacts
snowball or chain sample
researchers use _____ in studies where they cannot identify useful informants, where informants are not easily accessible, or where anonymity is desirable, for instance in studies about sensitive or confidential communication issues
snowball or chain sample
a _____ develops as the study proceeds and cannot be planned.
theoretical sample
develops as the study proceeds and cannot be planned.
theoretical sample
at the basis of your sample are the concepts and issues which arise during the course of your research
theoretical sample
if you use _____, it's important to provide a clear justification of why you have included particular units
theoretical sampling
in theoretical sampling, at the point of _____ -- when no new ideas arise -- sampling stops.
data saturation
a _____ or _____ sample is when you sample those available.
convenience; opportunistic
when you sample those available
convenience or opportunistic sample
here, you make the most out of opportunities (which sometimes occur unexpectedly) to ask potentially useful informants to take part in your study
convenience or opportunistic sample
sometimes happens when recruiting people is difficult and only a few informants are available
convenience or opportunistic sample
when you meet someone at a party and ask them there and then if they would allow you to interview them at a later date
convenience or opportunistic sample
True or false? To some extent, much sampling is opportunistic and arranged for the convenience of the researcher.
true
What are the 4 things sample size will depend on?
(1.) the type of RESEARCH QUESTION, (2.) the type of QUALITATIVE APPROACH used in the study, (3.) MATERIAL AND TIME resources used in the study, (4.) the NUMBER OF RESEARCHERS in the study
What are the 4 things sample size will depend on?
(1.) the type of RESEARCH QUESTION, (2.) the type of QUALITATIVE APPROACH used in the study, (3.) MATERIAL AND TIME resources used in the study, (4.) the NUMBER OF RESEARCHERS in the study
Qualitative is typically a _____ sampling.
small
Generally qualitative sampling consists of _____ sampling units studied in depth, with the sample size often extending over the course of the data collection and analysis.
small
When a sample is very heterogenous it is likely that the sample will need to be (smaller/larger) than if it were homogeneous.
larger
Most often, it seems that researchers consider a sample of between _____ and _____ informants suits their purposes.
4; 40
Why are smaller samples more valuable in qualitative research?
Smaller samples are valuable for the deep, rich data they provide but should be so small that saturation cannot be achieved. Small samples allow you to capture participants' specific responses and individual interpretations. This aspect is often lost when large samples are used.
when looking at _____ we are looking at a unit of people and looking for some kind of common theme between those people
population
looking at a sample in terms of WHAT we want to sample and HOW we want to sample
purposeful/purposive sampling
In the diversity project, narrowing it down by focusing on nonprofits dealing with a diversity issue and then narrowing it down more to focus on those that are community-based and interested in participating is an example of
purposeful/purposive sampling
any time you can get two groups that are polar opposites and try to figure out where their beliefs come from
heterogenous sample
NKU students going to the Student Union and asking questions or mall surveys are examples of
convenience or opportunistic sampling
a SWOT analysis is an example of a _____ sample
theoretical
the idea that you may not know who can give you information or who is willing to talk until you get into a setting so you use this kind of sampling
theoretical sample
in this kind of sampling, the sample develops as we go; we have an idea, but it may change, such as looking at decision-making at NKU, starting with the president who leads us somewhere else
theoretical sample
In a researcher-participant relationship, you need to establish _____ from the beginning.
rapport
In a researcher-participant relationship, you need to ensure that the relationship is based on _____.
mutual respect and equality
In a researcher-participant relationship, _____ is built through your involvement with and interest in your participants, whether face-to-face or online.
trust
In a researcher-participant relationship, good _____ skills are a must.
interpersonal
In qualitative approaches to interviewing, whether face-to-face or online, there is a great degree of closeness between researcher and participant. This reflects the emphasis placed on the researcher as the _____ of the research.
human instrument
If you are able to _____ from the beginning of the research process, the evidence you collect will be valuable and insightful.
establish rapport
True or false? The interviewer and the person interviewed work together in a relationship of complete equality.
false
A fallacy exists that the interviewer and the person interviewed work together in a relationship of complete equality. This is not always possible; nevertheless, your relationships should be based on _____ and a _____.
mutual respect; position of equality as fellow human beings
Trust is built up through your _____ and _____ your participants and because of your communication competencies.
involvement with; interest in
Having good _____ skills and being adept at social interaction is important in the researcher-participant relationship.
interpersonal
Relationship-building begins at which point of the research process?
At the start, when you make initial contact.
True or false? Increasingly researchers are discovering that meaningful relationships can indeed be developed online.
true
involve experiences regarding what is seen, felt and heard
sensory questions
_____ involve experiences regarding what is seen, felt and heard, for example "what do you see when you look at this ad?"
sensory questions
"when you smell the interior of a brand new car, what images are conjured up in your mind?"
sensory questions
"what do you see when you look at this billboard?"
sensory questions
aim to reveal differences in attitudes and perceptions by comparing one thing to another
contrast questions
_____ aim to reveal differences in attitudes and perceptions by comparing one thing to another, for example "why did you decide to vote for candidate X versus Y?"
contrast questions
"why did you decide to give money to this charity rather than another?"
contrast questions
also describing the opposites of a corporate brand, for example "describe the opposite of what you think about Company X" in order to uncover perceptions about a company's brand or its corporate identity
contrast questions
aim to understand how people organize their feelings and knowledge within a particular area
structural questions
_____ aim to understand how people organize their feelings and knowledge within a particular area, for example "what are all the different ways you watch television?"
structural questions
"what are all the ways you used to update interested parties before Twitter and Facebook came along?"
structural questions
when you see the phrase "what are all the ways," it signals what?
structural questions
By asking several informants the same question, you begin to build up a picture of certain behaviors and meanings with regard to particular activities, products or services.
structural questions
"how has your company benefited from using social media?"
structural questions
take the form of text-, audio-, or video-chats
online interviews
text-based online interviews can be _____ (not real time, such as e-mail) or _____ (real time, such as instant messaging/IM and chat rooms)
asynchronous; synchronous
What are two benefits of online interviews?
(1.) you can access people in their NATURAL ENVIRONMENT and (2.) interview people you MAY NOT NORMALLY BE ABLE TO, including those that otherwise be difficult to contact or those too distant for you to reach for face-to-face interviewing
When e-mail is used for asynchronous interviews, it has what advantages? (2)
(1.) It has the advantage of allowing participants to be MORE THOUGHTFUL AND REFLECTIVE because they can take their time to respond in a measured way, and (2.) participants TAKE GREATER OWNERSHIP of the research focus and dialogue, responding in unexpected ways and directions, and according to their own timeframes rather than those of the researchers.
type of interview that uses an interview guide with a focus on the issues or topic areas to be covered
semi-structured interview
in a _____, questions are contained in an interview guide with a focus on the issues or topic areas to be covered
semi-structured interview
What are three pros of semi-structured interviews?
(1.) collecting SIMILAR TYPES OF DATA from all participants, (2.) SAVING TIME, (3.) the DROSS RATE is lower than with unstructured interviews
What are three pros of semi-structured interviews?
(1.) collecting SIMILAR TYPES OF DATA from all participants, (2.) SAVING TIME, (3.) the DROSS RATE is lower than with unstructured interviews
True or false? In semi-structured interviews, the sequencing of questions is the same for every participant.
false; the sequencing of questions is NOT the same for every participant as it depends on the process of each interview and the responses of each individual
the _____ ensures that you collect similar types of data from all informants.
interview guide
allows you to save time and ensures that the "dross rate" (the material that is of less relevance to your agenda) is lower than for unstructured interviews
interview guide
allows you to develop questions prior to interviewing and then decide for yourself which issues to pursue
interview guide
True or false? Although the interview guide may be quite long and detailed, it need not be followed strictly because your aim is to understand the perspectives of informants and to create collaboratively a meaningful account of the topic you are interested in researching.
true
In _____ or _____ interviews, there is no list of predetermined questions and only 1 broad general question.
unstructured; non-standardized
there is no list of predetermined questions and only 1 broad general question
unstructured interview
What are the two pros of unstructured interviews?
(1.) they generate the RICHEST DATA, (2.) they can UNCOVER SURPRISING INFORMATION.
What are the two cons of unstructured interviews?
(1.) they have the highest "DROSS RATE", (2.) they can be EXTREMELY TIME-CONSUMING
Because _____ does not follow rigid procedures, interviews of this type are highly _____, allowing you to follow the interests of informants as they relate to their own thought processes.
unstructured interviews; flexible
Your questioning follows no order but takes a sequence that depends on the responses to early questions. Informants are free to answer at length, so that great depth and detail can be obtained.
unstructured interviews
Even though your overall direction and control of the interview are minimal, you still have your own agenda because of the need to achieve your research aim
unstructured interviews
Unstructured interviews generate the _____ and often uncover _____, but they also have the highest "_____" and can be extremely _____.
richest data; surprising evidence; dross rate; time-consuming
The goal of _____ is to discuss past and present experiences of interviewees regarding their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts.
interviewing
The goal of interviewing is to discuss past and present _____ of interviewees regarding their _____, _____, and _____.
experiences; feelings; perceptions; thoughts
A secondary goal of interviews is to help us understand the basis for interviewees _____ about a specific situation, issue, or product.
beliefs and opinions
What are the 4 benefits of interviewing?
(1.) they are very FLEXIBLE because the answers given by interviewees inform the evolving conversation, (2.) the data you collect are situated within their own SOCIAL CONTEXT; that is, the responses you derive from interviews are the subjective views of your interviewees, (3.) interviews allow you to understand the CONSTRUCTS that interviewees use as a basis for their opinions and beliefs about a particular situation, product or issue, (4.) when you are interested in gaining CULTURAL KNOWLEDGE because, from a cultural perspective, the interview is not a mirror on an external world or the inner life of a personal, but a performance in which interviewer and interviewee produce cultural talk and thus enact cultural meanings
What are the 4 benefits of interviewing?
(1.) they are very FLEXIBLE because the answers given by interviewees inform the evolving conversation, (2.) the data you collect are situated within their own SOCIAL CONTEXT; that is, the responses you derive from interviews are the subjective views of your interviewees, (3.) interviews allow you to understand the CONSTRUCTS that interviewees use as a basis for their opinions and beliefs about a particular situation, product or issue, (4.) when you are interested in gaining CULTURAL KNOWLEDGE because, from a cultural perspective, the interview is not a mirror on an external world or the inner life of a personal, but a performance in which interviewer and interviewee produce cultural talk and thus enact cultural meanings
What are the 4 benefits of interviewing?
(1.) they are very FLEXIBLE because the answers given by interviewees inform the evolving conversation, (2.) the data you collect are situated within their own SOCIAL CONTEXT; that is, the responses you derive from interviews are the subjective views of your interviewees, (3.) interviews allow you to understand the CONSTRUCTS that interviewees use as a basis for their opinions and beliefs about a particular situation, product or issue, (4.) when you are interested in gaining CULTURAL KNOWLEDGE because, from a cultural perspective, the interview is not a mirror on an external world or the inner life of a personal, but a performance in which interviewer and interviewee produce cultural talk and thus enact cultural meanings
finding out why people think the way they do, why the feel the way they do, what processes brought them to their conclusions; we want to find out what their world is like and essentially put ourselves in their shoes
goal of interviewing
involve asking questions about beliefs; "starting from your first memory as a kid until now, tell me where your religious beliefs come from -- from family, church, etc. -- and do you take them at face value?"
structural questions
Whether interviewing, focus groups, or building relationships with journalists, a relationship built on _____, _____, _____, and _____ is essential.
rapport; respect; equality; trust
Whether interviewing, focus groups, or building relationships with journalists, a relationship built on _____, _____, _____, and _____ is essential.
rapport; respect; equality; trust
involve a group of people, often with similar experiences and/or characteristics
focus groups
in a focus group, the _____/_____ interviews the group
moderator; facilitator
involves a group of people -- often with common experiences or characteristics -- who are interviewed by a researcher (who is known as a _____ or _____) for the purpose of eliciting ideas, thoughts, and perceptions about a specific topic or certain issues linked to an area of interest
focus group; moderator; facilitator
The purpose of focus groups is to concentrate on _____ and discuss them in depth rather than investigate a great variety of matters in one study.
one or two clear issues or objects
What is the purpose of focus groups?
to concentrate on one or two clear issues or objects and discuss them in depth rather than investigate a great variety of matters in one study
True or false? The focus group method relies merely on the ideas of the researcher and a single participant.
false; The focus group approach does not rely merely on the ideas of the researcher and a single participant; instead, questions and answers are produced by all members of the group themselves.
What is the goal of focus groups?
The goal of focus groups is to gain ideas, thoughts, and perceptions regarding a specific topic or certain issues. You want to see the topic or issues through the eyes of the participant.
The goal of _____ is to gain ideas, thoughts, and perceptions regarding a specific topic or certain issues. You want to see the topic or issues through the eyes of the participants.
focus groups
What is the ultimate goal in focus groups?
to see the topic (which may concern a service, product, or issue) from the participants' point of view
What are the six (6) benefits of focus groups?
(1.) provide evidence from MULTIPLE VOICES on the same topic, (2.) are INTERACTIVE AND DYNAMIC, (3.) allow participants to SOCIALLY CONSTRUCT THEIR VIEWS, (4.) provide a SUPPORTIVE FORUM for expressing suppressed views, (5.) allow you to collect a LARGE AMOUNT OF DATA quickly, (6.) are often used with OTHER METHODS, both qualitative and quantitative
What are the six (6) benefits of focus groups?
(1.) provide evidence from MULTIPLE VOICES on the same topic, (2.) are INTERACTIVE AND DYNAMIC, (3.) allow participants to SOCIALLY CONSTRUCT THEIR VIEWS, (4.) provide a SUPPORTIVE FORUM for expressing suppressed views, (5.) allow you to collect a LARGE AMOUNT OF DATA quickly, (6.) are often used with OTHER METHODS, both qualitative and quantitative
What are the six (6) benefits of focus groups?
(1.) provide evidence from MULTIPLE VOICES on the same topic, (2.) are INTERACTIVE AND DYNAMIC, (3.) allow participants to SOCIALLY CONSTRUCT THEIR VIEWS, (4.) provide a SUPPORTIVE FORUM for expressing suppressed views, (5.) allow you to collect a LARGE AMOUNT OF DATA quickly, (6.) are often used with OTHER METHODS, both qualitative and quantitative
What are the five stages of a focus group?
(1.) INTRODUCTORY REMARKS and ground rules, (2.) "WARM-UP" stage, (3.) OUTLINE of the context for the discussion, (4.) main DISCUSSION, consisting of general questions then more focused questions, (5.) SUMMING UP
What are the five stages of a focus group?
(1.) INTRODUCTORY REMARKS and ground rules, (2.) "WARM-UP" stage, (3.) OUTLINE of the context for the discussion, (4.) main DISCUSSION, consisting of general questions then more focused questions, (5.) SUMMING UP
What are the five stages of a focus group?
(1.) INTRODUCTORY REMARKS and ground rules, (2.) "WARM-UP" stage, (3.) OUTLINE of the context for the discussion, (4.) main DISCUSSION, consisting of general questions then more focused questions, (5.) SUMMING UP
Successful group interviews are not totally spontaneous but work to a clearly defined agenda, or _____.
discussion guide
serves as a checklist which makes certain that all salient topics are covered in the proper sequence
discussion guide
_____ involves showing an advertisement or telling a story related to the topic to help stimulate interaction.
stimulus material
When asking questions in traditional focus groups, researchers generally proceed from the more _____ to the _____, just as in other qualitative interviews.
general; specific
Generally a _____ researcher facilitates groups, but _____ moderators are advantageous if group discussions are very fast-paced or complex.
single; two
What are 4 qualities an effective focus group moderator must possess?
(1.) flexibility, (2.) open-mindedness, (3.) skills in eliciting information/getting people to talk, and (4.) the ability to listen and interpret
What are 4 qualities an effective focus group moderator must possess?
(1.) flexibility, (2.) open-mindedness, (3.) skills in eliciting information/getting people to talk, and (4.) the ability to listen and interpret
Because you take on a leadership role when moderating, you must have excellent _____ and _____ skills.
social; refereeing
The creation of an _____ and ____ group climate is one of your most initial tasks whether you are moderating traditional or online groups.
open; non-threatening
In online focus group research, _____ is an important factor.
time
Online focus groups take place in real time (_____) or non-real time (_____) or a combination of both.
synchronously; asynchronously
require participants to be online at the same time and to make their contributions simultaneously.
real-time focus groups
chatting in this way is often very fast-paced, with less depth or reflection in the responses than asynchronous discussions. Also, because you take a highly involved moderating role, the direction of discussion is likely to be more focused.
real-time focus groups
do not require participants to be available at any particular time. Instead, people can enter and leave whenever they wish (for example, threads).
non-real-time focus groups
Because there is no pressure to respond immediately to questions, this is valuable when you are seeking detailed and highly reflective comments. However, a danger is that it is possible for participants to refer questions to friends, or seek information elsewhere, presenting the answers back into the focus group as their own opinion.
non-real-time focus groups
in _____, questions are posed and responded to privately or publicly in a threaded message style or in a wiki community writing format
time-extended focus groups
Everyone can see both the questions and the answers and even simultaneously respond with their impressions, experiences, answers, and additional questions.
time-extended focus groups
the notion of extended time relates to the ability to leave the sessions online for prolonged periods, during which time participants can add to, modify, or comment on their own or others' postings.
time-extended focus groups
The limitations and problems in focus groups mostly stem from the effects of _____.
group interaction
What are the 8 limitations of focus groups?
(1.) 1-2 members may DOMINATE the discussion, (2.) STIFLE OPINIONS of the minority, (3.) the ENVIRONMENT/atmosphere may not be appropriate, (4.) the MODERATOR'S STYLE may cause a bias, (5.) can't always get MEMBERS TO TALK/difficulty encouraging group interaction, (6.) CONFLICT, (7.) COORDINATING SCHEDULES, (8.) TRANSCRIPTION difficulties
What are the 8 limitations of focus groups?
(1.) 1-2 members may DOMINATE the discussion, (2.) STIFLE OPINIONS of the minority, (3.) the ENVIRONMENT/atmosphere may not be appropriate, (4.) the MODERATOR'S STYLE may cause a bias, (5.) can't always get MEMBERS TO TALK/difficulty encouraging group interaction, (6.) CONFLICT, (7.) COORDINATING SCHEDULES, (8.) TRANSCRIPTION difficulties
What are the 8 limitations of focus groups?
(1.) 1-2 members may DOMINATE the discussion, (2.) STIFLE OPINIONS of the minority, (3.) the ENVIRONMENT/atmosphere may not be appropriate, (4.) the MODERATOR'S STYLE may cause a bias, (5.) can't always get MEMBERS TO TALK/difficulty encouraging group interaction, (6.) CONFLICT, (7.) COORDINATING SCHEDULES, (8.) TRANSCRIPTION difficulties
limitations of focus groups; some participants may be reluctant to express extreme opinions if they feel this will deviate from groups expectations or if they are afraid they will be ostracized by the group. The result is that participants may relinquish their critical stance towards the views of other members and there may conformity in thinking or convergent answers.
stifle opinions of the minority
limitations of focus groups; the impersonal climate of some settings makes natural, honest conversation unlikely in some cases. For this reason, it is important to ensure that you have selected a room and layout for your interview sessions where participants will feel comfortable.
environment/atmosphere not appropriate or contrived
limitations of focus groups; although researchers endeavor not to express their biases in focus group research, sometimes it is difficult to avoid this. A special relationship with a specific individual, an affirmative nod at something of which you approve, or a lack of encouragement for unexpected or unwelcome answers may bias the interviews.
the moderator's style may cause a bias
one of the reasons why certain individuals feel inhibited about making contributions to group discussions may be because members have disparate educational backgrounds.
can't always get members to talk/difficulty encouraging group interaction
limitations of focus groups; while confrontation can lead to stimulating and lively debates, and conflict can provide rich data, they also may be destructive.
conflict
limitations of focus groups; not everyone who has been invited will attend, but you still have to go ahead and with your discussion even if only a few have turned up.
coordinating schedules
limitations of focus groups; transcription can be more difficult in traditional group interviewing because people’s voices vary and the distance they sit from the microphone influences the clarity of their contributions.
transcription difficulties
What is the preferred amount of people in a focus group?
5-7
What is the normal length of an online focus group?
90 minutes
In observational research, we are recording _____.
what we see and hear in the field
In _____, we are recording what we see and hear in the field.
observational research
With observational research, we are using systematic _____ and recording _____, _____, and _____.
note-taking; events; artifacts; behaviors
True or false? Observational research is often used alone.
false; observational research is used with another method; you rarely see it published as the only method used. Typically, researchers will conduct observations and then interviews.
observational research allows us to distinguish between what people _____ and what _____ when put in a particular situation.
say they will do; what they actually do
If you consciously select to use observation as a formal research method, recording _____ becomes an essential part of the process of observing and should start from the earliest possible moment.
what you see and hear
_____ entails the systematic noting and recording of events, artifacts, and behaviors of informants as they occur in specific situations rather than as they are later remembered, recounted, and generalized by participants themselves.
observation
entails the systematic noting and recording of events, artifacts, and behaviors of informants as they occur in specific situations rather than as they are later remembered, recounted, and generalized by participants themselves.
observation
used systematically to supplement other research methods or as the primary research technique in a study (such as in ethnography or within a case study design), it provides an important means of accessing and understanding the ways in which people act and communicatively interact
observation
enables you to identify the conscious as well as the taken-for-granted actions that participants rarely articulate despite participating in them
observation
provides a technique for distinguishing between what people say they do and what they actually do, and investigating any contradictions between the two
observation
observational studies, particularly participant observation, offer a _____ perspective and graphic description of _____.
holistic; social life
By closely engaging with the setting, you find that people become used to you and continue to go about their business in their accustomed ways. This enables you to note their unexpressed intentions and expectations, the significance of events affecting social relations and the multiplicity of participants' experiences.
observation
What are the 6 strategies/key features of observational research?
(1.) a PROLONGED ENGAGEMENT in the setting, (2.) use of NATIVE LANGUAGE and conversation as data, (3.) participating in EVERYDAY as well as non-routine activities, (4.) observations which are INFORMAL/FORMAL, (5.) the recording of FIELD NOTES, (6.) very useful in examining SOCIAL PROCESSES AND CHANGE
What are the 6 strategies/key features of observational research?
(1.) a PROLONGED ENGAGEMENT in the setting, (2.) use of NATIVE LANGUAGE and conversation as data, (3.) participating in EVERYDAY as well as non-routine activities, (4.) observations which are INFORMAL/FORMAL, (5.) the recording of FIELD NOTES, (6.) very useful in examining SOCIAL PROCESSES AND CHANGE
As a research method, _____ has great potential in longitudinal studies such as those which examine social processes and change.
observation
True or false? Qualitative researchers generally object to the idea of playing the role of an outsider looking in.
true
True or false? Qualitative researchers seek to be an insider in the world of participants.
true; this role allows them to lessen the status and activity differences between themselves and the people at the research scene, enabling them to achieve a greater understanding
as a _____, you are a "fly on the wall."
complete observer
silent observer
complete observer
What is the problem with being a complete observer?
you have no meaningful contact with the participants
also known as "simple observation" or "silent observation"
complete observer
here you take no part in the setting but employ a hidden approach, creating no impact on the situation at all
complete observer
this mainly occurs when you employ a one-way mirror to observe focus groups, make use of video cameras to observe various activities, or observe online discussion groups without taking part
complete observer
issues of access with this are more problematic and complex than for other forms of data collection because of the potential that this method holds to do harm to the interests of participants
complete observer
in this role you have no meaningful contact with informants, therefore they have no opportunity to give you feedback or to influence your interpretation of their actions and experiences
complete observer
Within the complete observer method, there is a danger of being _____, seeing the situation from your own cultural viewpoint.
ethnocentric
you are part of the setting, culture, workplace, etc. -- an insider, immersed in the setting and participants world
complete participant
What are the problems with being a complete participant?
(1.) the scope of your movements is LIMITED to what you can experience in your member role, (2.) you CANNOT INTERVIEW or you will "blow" your cover, (3.) you may "go native" and lose the ability to CRITICALLY ASSESS, (4.) it is unlikely that you will be granted ETHICS APPROVAL because of its potentially unethical nature
The _____ is part of the setting and takes an insider role that involves covert observation.
complete participant
you become a fully functioning member of the setting and are not known by others as a researcher
complete participant
Research of this nature is valuable if the settings you enter are characterized by beliefs and norms that do not admit criticism (and where, for example, you wish to expose unethical practices), or where there is guarded access or when the situation is very sensitive.
complete participant
dimensions of the field in observational research; the location, for example a PR consultancy
space
dimensions of the field in observational research; members or participants in the setting, for example consultants and clients
actor
dimensions of the field in observational research; behavior and actions of people, for example implementing a crisis campaign
activity
dimensions of the field in observational research; the things located in the setting, for example architecture, decor, and documents
objects
dimensions of the field in observational research; single actions of people, for example ringing a journalist
act
dimensions of the field in observational research; what is happening, for example a press conference
events
dimensions of the field in observational research; timeframe and sequencing of activities, for example beginning and end of the campaign
time
dimensions of the field in observational research; what people are aiming to do, for example objectives of the campaign
goal
dimensions of the field in observational research; the emotions that people have, for example attitudes towards journalists
feelings
The main research question, problem, or puzzle that you decide to address is very much shaped by the nature of the _____ or _____ you have chosen to study.
setting; field
Doing participant observation is like working in a _____ structure.
funnel
What are the 3 ways to progress in observational research?
(1.) descriptive observation, (2.) focused observation, (3.) selective observation
What are the 3 ways to progress in observational research?
(1.) descriptive observation, (2.) focused observation, (3.) selective observation
ways to progress in observational research; focus on asking general questions
descriptive observation
ways to progress in observational research; as important areas or aspects emerge, you will focus on these
focused observation
ways to progress in observational research; focus on key issues
selective observation
ways to progress in observational research; proceeds on the basis of general questions that you have in mind. Everything that goes on in the situation is data and is recorded, including colors, sounds, and appearances of people in the setting.
descriptive observation
ways to progress in observational research; as time goes by, certain important areas or aspects of the setting become more obvious; focus on these because they contribute to the achievement of the aim of your research project. Your investigation therefore moves from broad to narrow observations as you concentrate on smaller units.
focused observation
ways to progress in observational research; eventually the observation becomes highly selective as you concentrate just on the key issues which relate to your topic
selective observation
What are 2 advantages of observational research?
(1.) DIRECT ACCESS to participants that will allow you to really see how they behave in a natural setting and to ask questions about observations, (2.) observation techniques can be LESS DISRUPTIVE and more unobtrusive to the setting
What are 2 advantages of observational research?
(1.) DIRECT ACCESS to participants that will allow you to really see how they behave in a natural setting and to ask questions about observations, (2.) observation techniques can be LESS DISRUPTIVE and more unobtrusive to the setting
you are trying to capture an environment or take a snapshot of what you are seeing
observation
"what is your opinion of others actions or attitudes?"
projective questioning
when you use _____, you aim to discover participants' feelings by asking them to give their opinions about the actions or attitudes of other people. This allows them to respond freely because they are not stating how they would personally feel about or deal with the same situation.
projective questioning
aim to discover participants' feelings by asking them to give their opinions about the actions or attitudes of other people
projective questioning
_____ and _____ techniques rely on the use of written, visual, or multimedia texts as well as physical products to stimulate participants to talk about often deep-seated beliefs and opinions.
projective; elicitation
rely on the use of written, visual, or multimedia texts as well as physical products to stimulate participants to talk about deep-seated beliefs; for example, by showing a picture, having them read a story, showing a video, commercial, etc.
projective and elicitation techniques
although public relations researchers rarely use these techniques, marketing researchers consider them invaluable for uncovering the often subliminal characteristics of consumers, such as consumers’ basic motivations to buy or not to buy, consumers’ reactions to colors, size and shape of packaging, or names of products
projective and elicitation techniques
The insights gained from _____ techniques are often used to inform the development of advertising campaigns.
projective and elicitation techniques
ways of using stimuli and indirect questioning to motivate participants to verbalize unframed or subconscious attitudes, or underlying emotional values and needs
projective and elicitation techniques
they are used to generate cultural talk about phenomena under investigation, stimulating participants to express ideas and construct meanings
projective and elicitation techniques
Because people’s motives and attitudes are implicit, often they are not able to articulate these. Therefore, by asking participants to interpret the behavior of others or to provide a response to ambiguous verbal or visual stimuli such as a picture or story, you are inviting them to indirectly project their own personality, beliefs, and feelings onto the situation, and thus express their personal emotions. This enables you to generate information about participants that they are not even conscious of themselves.
projective and elicitation techniques
useful when you are researching sensitive topics that people have difficulty talking about, such as if they are afraid to make themselves look silly or prejudiced because they consider that it may be impolite or offensive to talk about the topic. The techniques are invaluable for overcoming these sorts of difficulties in cross-cultural research.
projective and elicitation techniques
A further benefit is that _____ help to overcome the barrier of social desirability factors where informants try to say the right thing to please the interviewer.
projective techniques
What is the biggest limitation to using documents as data?
The biggest limitation to using documents as data is that they are VERY political and subjective, produced to persuade, spin information, and/or represent only one viewpoint.
What are the 3 limitations of written, visual and multi-media materials/documents?
(1.) the biggest limitation to using documents as data is that they are VERY POLITICAL AND SUBJECTIVE, produced by people to persuade, spin information, and/or represent only one viewpoint; (2.) the only documents available for research may be PRODUCED BY AND FOR ELITES, that is, people in power, (3.) visual documents are NOT OBJECTIVE REPRESENTATIONS of something real
What are the 3 limitations of written, visual and multi-media materials/documents?
(1.) the biggest limitation to using documents as data is that they are VERY POLITICAL AND SUBJECTIVE, produced by people to persuade, spin information, and/or represent only one viewpoint; (2.) the only documents available for research may be PRODUCED BY AND FOR ELITES, that is, people in power, (3.) visual documents are NOT OBJECTIVE REPRESENTATIONS of something real
true or false? although the images we see in pictures and films on websites may seem like “reality,” in fact the way in which we interpret these is how we have been taught to see them, i.e. through a process of cultural construction.
true
documents that are genuine, complete, reliable, and have unquestioned authorship
authentic documents
documents that are free from distortion or error
credible documents
If a document is genuine, complete, reliable, and of unquestioned authorship, then it can be said to be _____. To establish this, you need to consider the history of documents as well as the writers' motives and biases.
authentic
_____ is concerned with whether a document is free from error or distortion. Accuracy might be affected by an author's proximity in time and place to the events described and also the conditions under which the information was acquired at the time.
credibility
In order to be assured of the _____ of documents, you need to ask questions such as who produced the document, why, when, for whom and in what context. It is also worth asking what information the account is based on; how accurate, honest, frank and comprehensive is it? Are there any signs in the account of partiality or axe-grinding?
credibility
_____, also called _____, is when you reanalyze others' research in light of your topic.
secondary analysis; desk research
when you reanalyze others' research in light of your topic
secondary analysis/desk research
What are 3 types of secondary analysis?
(1.) DOCUMENTS written by other researchers (journals, books, dissertations), (2.) RAW DATA collected by other researchers which you re-use (census, archived interview transcripts), (3.) material COLLECTED AND PRESENTED BY ORGANIZATIONS in the course of their operations (websites, pamphlets, TV broadcasts, letters, emails, and reports) or material produced by individuals as part of their everyday lives (diaries, blogs, photos, videos, etc.)
When you undertake _____, you collect data from documents written by other researchers, raw data collected collected by other researchers, and material collected and presented by organizations or material produced by individuals as part of their everyday lives.
secondary research
_____ are data collected by others for a purpose other than your own research goals
secondary data
any additional analysis of an existing set of written, visual, or multi-media documents
secondary analysis
It involves you offering a different interpretation or developing knowledge which augments or contrasts with that presented in the original enquiry.
secondary analysis
Records and documents such as these position your primary research within its broader context. Alternatively, they can offer different, critical perspectives on the data you gather from other methods
secondary analysis
involves identifying and counting patterns of frequency and regularity in a large number of texts
quantitative content analysis
_____ involves identifying and counting patterns of frequency and regularity in a large number of texts. You are still using documents or media as data, but you can look at longer time spans.
quantitative content analysis
For example, looking at how companies or consumers construct and demonstrate knowledge, how body image is portrayed in a specific magazine, or how gender, race, age, etc. are portrayed in a specific TV series.
quantitative content analysis
_____ is concerned with identifying and counting patterns of frequency and regularity in a large number of texts.
quantitative content analysis
also called document/documentary analysis or text analysis
qualitative content analysis
can reveal features that are hidden or latent in the context; for example, irony, rhetorical and stylistic devices, metaphors, figures of speech, etc.
qualitative content analysis
it is very revealing of cultural norms and nuances
qualitative content analysis
through it you can track historical processes or reconstruct past events and ongoing processes
qualitative content analysis
Essentially, you are looking at documents as a data source.
qualitative content analysis
Research which employs documents as a data source is called document analysis, documentary analysis, text analysis, or, more commonly, _____.
qualitative content analysis
begins at the point where statistical presentation reaches its limits because it offers a means of revealing features that are hidden or latent in the content, such as irony, rhetorical and stylistic devices, metaphors and figures of speech or constructs associated with visual images. These all can be very revealing of cultural norms and nuances.
qualitative content analysis
Using documents as sources, therefore, allows you to cover much longer _____ than is typically feasible through the application of other qualitative methods.
time spans
whether based on a written text or on visual images are also documents and sometimes are produced specifically for a qualitative study.
diaries
has been neglected as a research method in public relations even though they have the potential to offer valuable insights into the immediate present from an insider's point of view
diaries
an established research strategy in historical and anthropological research and are becoming increasingly popular in social research as a means of understanding people as both observers of and participants in social life.
diaries
may be either unsolicited documents spontaneously produced by informants or ones which are stimulated by the request of a researcher
diaries
can take the form of traditional, handwritten or typed records, or make use of technology -- such as digital or video cameras or computers
diaries
When used in qualitative research, _____ have an open format response style. They encourage informants to record an account of their personal feelings and experiences about events that are personally meaningful to them.
diaries
allow you to collect data about the responses of informants according to their interpretations and within the worlds in which they live or work
diaries
Diaries are useful for enabling you to do what 5 things?
(1.) access SITUATIONS AND PLACES that might otherwise be inaccessible for a participant observation study, (2.) study different events and organizations SIMULTANEOUSLY, comparing the perspectives of several writers, (3.) come to an UNDERSTANDING OF THE ATTITUDES, feelings, emotions, and responses of those involved in particular situations, (4.) capture an "EVER-CHANGING PRESENT" because of the closeness of the experience and recording of it in a diary, (5.) better understand the ROLE OF BIOGRAPHICAL, ENVIRONMENTAL, CULTURAL, AND SOCIAL CONTEXTS in shaping communication practices
What 4 topics can diary-based research be employed to explore?
(1.) the EMOTIONAL REACTIONS of publics or communications practitioners as they are expressed over time, (2.) the explorations of SPECIFIC BEHAVIORS over time, (3.) research into SOCIAL INTERACTIONS, (4.) a comparison of the PERSPECTIVES of different stakeholders over time
Conducting a _____ helps to iron out any problems with the general format of the diary and its feasibility.
pilot study
True or false? Participants will be motivated to complete the diaries on a regular basis if you explain the objectives of your study, and indicate how much time, and how often, they should spend on their diaries.
true
Diary-based research involves high _____ relationships between researchers and participants. Ideally, these begin to be built at the piloting stage and then are strengthened throughout the research, as well as when/if you conduct follow-up interviews.
trust
What is the pro of diaries?
we can understand people as both observers of and participants in social life
What are 2 limitations of diaries?
(1.) the use of diaries in research will only be effective if participants can EXPRESS THEMSELVES WELL IN WRITING, (2.) PARTICIPATION ATTRITION, especially in the first week of a study.
In _____, you are looking at documents to find hidden messages or to group things together -- to find what is really going on in these documents.
qualitative content analysis