Political Terminology

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Absolutism

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The theory or practice of absolute government, typically based on a claim to an unlimited right to rule.

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Accountability

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Answerability; having a duty to explain one's conduct and being subject to monitoring and evaluation by a higher authority.

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Administration

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The task of coordinating or executing policy; more narrowly, dealing with information and monetary control.

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Administrative Law

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Law that regulates the exercise of executive power and policy implementations.

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Adversary Politics

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A style of politics characterised by ideological antagonism and an ongoing electoral battle between major parties.

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Affirmative Action

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Reverse or 'positive' discrimination which accords preferential treatment to groups on the basis of their past disadvantage.

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Agenda Setting

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The ability to structure policy debate by controlling which issues are discussed or establishing a priority amongst them.

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Alienation

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Separation from one's genuine or essential nature; for Marxists, the reduction of labour to a mere commodity.

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Altruism

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A concern for the welfare of others, based on either enlightened self-interest or a recognition of a common humanity.

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Anarchism

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An ideology committed to the abolition of the state and the outright rejection of political authority, based on an unqualified belief in liberty and equality.

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Anarchy

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Literally, without rule; anarchy is often used pejoratively to suggest instability or even chaos.

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Ancien Regime

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Literally, old order; usually linked with the absolutist structures that predated the French Revolution

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Anomie

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A weakening of values and normative rules, associated with feelings of isolation, loneliness and meaninglessness.

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Anthropocentrism

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The belief that human needs and interests are of overriding moral and philosophical importance; the opposite of ecocentrism.

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Antiparty Parties

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Parties that set out to subvert traditional party politics by rejecting parliamentary compromise and emphasising popular mobilisation.

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Anti-politics

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Disillusionment with formal and established political processes, reflected in nonparticipation, support for antisystem parties, or the use of direct action.

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Anti-Semitism

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Prejudice or hatred towards Jews; anti-Semitism may take religious, economic or racial forms.

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Asian Values

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Values that supposedly reflect the history, culture and religious backgrounds of Asian societies; examples include social harmony, respect for authority and a belief in the family.

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Assimilation

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The process through which immigrant communities lose their cultural distinctiveness by adjusting to the values, allegiances and lifestyles of the 'host' society.

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Association

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A group formed by voluntary action, reflecting recognition of shared interests or common concerns.

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Athenian Democracy

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A form of direct democracy, based on government by mass meetings and the allocation of public offices through lot or rota.

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Atomism

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The belief that society is made up of a collection of largely self-sufficient individuals; or a tendency towards social breakdown and isolation.

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Autarky

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Literally, self-rule; usually associated with economic self-sufficiency brought about by either a withdrawal from intentional trade, or colonial expansion.

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Authoritarianism

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The belief in or practice of government 'from above'; the exercise of authority regardless of the consent of the governed.

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Authority

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The right to influence the behaviour of others on the basis of an acknowledged duty to obey; authority may be traditional, charismatic or legal-rational.

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Autonomy

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Literally, self-rule; an autonomous person is rationally self-willed by virtue of his or her independence of external authority.

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Balance of Power

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A pattern of interaction amongst states that tend to curb aggression and expansionism by rendering them impracticable.

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Balkanisation

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The fragmentation of a political unit into a patchwork of antagonistic entities (as has often occurred in the Balkans).

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Behaviouralism

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The belief that social theories should be constructed only on the basis of observable behaviour, providing quantifiable data for research.

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Bias

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Sympathies or prejudices that (often unconsciously) affect human judgement; bias implies distortion.

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Bicameralism

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The fragmentation of legislative power, established through the existence of two (co-equal) chambers in the assembly; a device of limited government.

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Big Government

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Interventionist government, usually understood to imply economic management and social regulation.

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Bill

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Proposed legislation in the form of a draft statute; if passed, a bill becomes an act.

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Bill of Rights

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A constitutional document that specifies the rights and freedoms of the individual, and so defines the legal extent of civil liberty.

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Bipolarity

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The tendency of the international system to revolve around two poles (major power blocs); bipolarity implies equilibrium and stability.

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Bonapartism

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A style of government that fuses personal leadership with conservative nationalism; for Marxists, it reflects the relative autonomy of the state.

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Bourgeois Ideology

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A Marxist term, denoting ideas and theories that serve the interests of the bourgeoisie by disguising the contradictions of capitalist society.

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Bourgeoisie

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A Marxist term, denoting the ruling class of a capitalist society, the owners of productive wealth.

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Bureaucracy

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Literally, rule by officials; the administrative machinery of the state, or more broadly, a rational and rule-governed mode of organisation.

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Cabinet

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A group of senior ministers that meets formally and regularly, and is chaired by the chief executive; cabinets may make policy or be consultative.

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Cabinet Government

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A system of government in which executive power is vested in a cabinet, each member having (in theory) equal influence and being subject to collective responsibility.

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Cadre

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A group of elite members of a party, distinguished by their ideological commitment and quasi-military discipline.

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Capitalism

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A system of generalised commodity production in which wealth is owned privately and economic life is organised according to market principles.

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Caucus

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A meeting of party members held to nominate election candidates or to discuss legislative proposals in advance of formal proceedings.

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Censorship

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The control or suppression of publications, expressions of opinions, or other public acts; censorship may be formal or informal.

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Centralisation

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The concentration of political power or government authority at the national level.

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Charisma

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Charm or personal power; the ability to inspire loyalty, emotional dependence, or even devotion, in others.

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Chauvinism

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An irrational belief in the superiority or dominance of one's group or cause.

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Checks and Balances

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Internal tensions within the governmental system that result from institutional fragmentation.

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Christian Democracy

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An ideological tradition within European conservatism, characterised by a commitment to the social market and qualified interventionism.

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Citizenship

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Membership of a state; a relationship between the individual and state based on reciprocal rights and responsibilities.

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Civic Culture

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A culture that blends popular participation with effective government; supposedly, the basis for stable democratic rule.

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Civic Nationalism

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A form of nationalism that is based on common citizenship, rooted in support for an underlying set of political values, rather than a common culture.

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Civil Liberty

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The private sphere of existence, belonging to the citizen not to the state; freedom from government.

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Civil Society

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The realm of autonomous groups and associations; a private sphere independent from public authority.

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Civil War

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An armed conflict between politically organised groups within a state, usually fought either for control of the state or to establish a new state.

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Class Consciousness

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A Marxist term, denoting an accurate awareness of class interests and a willingness to pursue them; a class-conscious class is a class for-itself.

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Class Dealignment

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A weakening of the relationship between social class and party support.

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Clientelism

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A relationship through which government agencies come to serve the interests of the client groups they are responsible for regulating or supervising.

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Coalition

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A grouping of rival political actors, brought together through the perception of a common threat or to harness collective energies.

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Coalition Government

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A government in which power is shared between two or more parties, based on the distribution among them of ministerial portfolios.

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Cohabitation

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An arrangement in a semipresidential system in which the president works with a government and assembly controlled by a rival party or parties.

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Cold War

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The period of rivalry between the USA-dominated West and the USSR-dominated East that extended from 1945 to the collapse of communism in the revolutions of 1989-91.

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Collective Responsibility

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The doctrine of cabinet government that holds that all ministers are obliged to give public support to government policies.

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Collective Security

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The theory or practice of resisting aggression through united action by a number of states.

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Collectivisation

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The abolition of private property in favour of a system of common or public ownership.

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Collectivism

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A belief in the capacity of human beings for collective action, based on cooperation not self-striving; collectivism implies that social entities are meaningful.

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Colonialism

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The theory or practice of establishing control over a foreign territory, usually by settlement and economic domination.

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Committee

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A small workgroup composed of members drawn from a larger body and charged with specific responsibilities.

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Common Law

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Law based on custom and precedent; law that is supposedly 'common' to all.

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Commune

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A small-scale collective organisation based on the sharing of wealth and power, possibly also extending to personal and domestic arrangements.

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Communism

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The principle of the common ownership of property; communism often refers to movements or regimes based on Marxist principles.

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Communitarianism

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The belief that the self or person is constituted through the community in the sense that there are no 'unencumbered selves'.

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Community

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A principle or sentiment based on the collective identity of a social group; bonds of comradeship, loyalty and duty.

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Competition State

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A state which pursues strategies to ensure long-term competitiveness in a globalised economy.

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Concept

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A general idea about something, usually expressed in a single word or short phrase.

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Confederation

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A qualified union of states in which each state retains its independence, typically guaranteed by unanimous decision-making.

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Conflict

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Competition between opposing forces, reflecting a diversity of opinions, preferences, needs or interests.

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Confucianism

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A system of ethics derived from the philosophy of Confucius, which emphasises respect and loyalty in human relationships and the cultivation of the self.

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Consensus

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A broad agreement on fundamental principles, allowing for disagreement on matters of emphasis or detail.

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Consensus Politics

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A style of politics based on compromise and conciliation; or an overlap of policy and ideological priorities between parties.

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Consent

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Assent or permission; in politics, usually an agreement to be governed or ruled.

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Conservatism

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An ideology characteristed by support for tradition, duty, authority and property, extending from Tory paternalism to the New Right.

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Consociational Democracy

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A form of democracy that operates through power-sharing and a close association amongst a number of parties or political formations.

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Constitution

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A set of rules that establish the duties, powers and functions of the institutions of government and define the relationship between the state and the individual.

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Constitutional Government

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Government that operates within a set of legal and institutional constraints that both limit its power and protect individual liberty.

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Constitutional Law

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Law that regulates the relationship between branches of government and between the state and the individual.

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Constitutionalism

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The theory or practice of limited government brought about by the existence of a constitution and the fragmentation of power.

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Consumerism

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A psychic and social phenomenon whereby personal happiness is equated with the consumption of material possessions.

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Contested Concept

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A concept over which there is theoretical or political debate; concepts are 'essentially contested' when no settled definition can ever be developed.

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Contract

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A voluntary agreement that is morally, and perhaps legally, binding.

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Convention

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A rule of conduct or behaviour; a nonlegal constitutional rule.

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Convergence Thesis

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The theory that politicoeconomic factors dictate that capitalist and socialist states will become increasingly similar.

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Cooperation

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Working together; achieving goals through collective action.

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Core Executive

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A network of institutions and actors who play key roles in the overall direction and coordination of government policy: 'the centre'.

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Corporatism

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The incorporation of organised interests into the process of government; corporatism may have a liberal or a fascist character.

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Corruption

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A failure to carry out 'proper' responsibilities as a result of the pursuit of private (and usually material) gain.

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Cosmopolitanism

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Literally, a belief in a world state; more usually, a commitment to fostering harmony and understanding amongst nations.

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Coup D'etat

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A forcible seizure of power through illegal and unconstitutional action carried out (unlike in a revolution or rebellion) by a small group.

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Cult of Personality

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A propaganda device through which a political leader is portrayed as a heroic or God-like figure.

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Cultural Globalisation

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The process whereby information, commodities and images produced in one part of the world enter into a global flow that tends to 'flatten out' cultural differences between nations and regions.

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Cultural Nationalism

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A form of nationalism that places primary emphasis on the regeneration of the nation as a distinct civilisation.

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Culture

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A peoples' attitudes, beliefs, symbols and values; broadly, that which is acquired through learning, rather than through inheritance.

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Decentralisation

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The expansion of local autonomy through the transfer of powers and responsibilities away from national bodies.

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Decision

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An act of choice; a selection from a range of options.

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Deindustrialisation

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A contraction of the economy's manufacturing base, reflected in the decline of 'heavy' industries.

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Deliberative Democracy

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A form of democracy that emphasises the need for discourse and debate to help define the public interest.

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Demagogue

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A political leader whose control over the masses is based on the ability to whip up hysterical enthusiasm.

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Democracy

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Rule by the people; democracy implies both popular participation and government in the public interest, and can take a wide variety of forms.

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Democratic Centralism

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The Leninist principle of party organisation, based on a supposed balance between freedom of discussion and strict unity of action.

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Democratic Deficit

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A lack of accountability of executive bodies to popular assemblies, or inadequate opportunities for popular participation.

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Democratisation

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The advance of liberal-democratic reform, implying, in particular, the granting of basic freedoms and the widening of popular participation and electoral choice.

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Departmentalism

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The tendency for government agencies to pursue their own interests and resist political control or broader administrative disciplines.

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Determinism

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The belief that human actions and choices are conditioned entirely by external factors; determinism implies that free will is a myth.

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Devolution

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The transfer of power from central government to subordinateregional bodies, without (unlike federalism) leading to shared sovereignty.

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Dialectic

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A process of interaction between two competing forces, giving rise to a higher stage of development.

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Dialectical Materialism

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The crude and deterministic form of Marxism that dominated intellectual life in orthodox communist states.

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Dictatorship

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Rule by a single individual; the arbitrary and unchecked exercise of power.

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Dictatorship of the Proletariat

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A Marxist term, denoting the transitionary phase between the collapse of capitalism and the establishment of full communism.

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Direct Action

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Political action taken outside the constitutional and legal framework; direct action may range from passive resistance to terrorism.

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Direct Democracy

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Popular self-government, characterised by the direct and continuous participation of citizens in the tasks of government.

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Discourse

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Human interaction, especially communication; discourse may disclose or illustrate power relationships.

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Divine Right

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The doctrine that earthly rulers are chosen by God and thus wield unchallengeable authority; a defence for monarchical absolutism.

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Ecocentrism

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A theoretical orientation that gives priority to the maintenance of ecological balance rather than the satisfaction of human interests.

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Ecologism

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An ideology based on the belief that there is an essential link between humankind and the natural world, and that the health of the ecosystem has priority over human interests.

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Ecology

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The study of the relationship between living organisms and their environment; ecology highlights the interconnectedness of nature.

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Economic Globalisation

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The absorption of national economies into a single global economy through the internationalisation of production and transnational capital flows.

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Economic Liberalism

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A belief in the market as a self-regulating mechanism tending naturally to deliver general prosperity and opportunities for all.

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Economic Man

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A model of human nature that stresses the self-interested pursuit of material satisfaction, individuals being seen as utility maximisers.

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Economic Sovereignty

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The absolute authority which the state exercises over economic life conducted within its borders, involving independent control of fiscal and monetary policies and control over trade and capital flows.

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Egalitarianism

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A theory or practice based on the desire to promote equality; or the belief that equality is the primary political value.

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Election

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A device for filling an office or post through choices made by a designated body of people: the electorate.

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Elective Dictatorship

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A constitutional imbalance in which executive power is checked only by the need to win subsequent elections.

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Electoral College

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An indirect electoral mechanism; a body of electors charged with responsibility for filling a party or public office.

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Elite

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A minority in whose hands power, wealth or prestige is concentrated.

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Elitism

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The belief in, or practice of, rule by an elite; the theory that political power is concentrated in the hands of the few.

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Empire

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A structure of political domination comprising diverse cultures, ethnic groups and nationalities held together by force or the threat of force.

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Empirical

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Based on observation and experimentl empirical knowledge is derived from sense data and experience.

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Empiricism

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The belief that experience is the only basis for knowledge and that therefore all hypotheses and theories should be tested by observation and experiment.

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Entrepreneurialism

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Values or practices associated with commercial risk-taking and profit-orientated business activity.

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Environmentalism

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A concern with protecting or conserving nature, ultimately (unlike ecologism) for the benefit of human kind.

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Equality

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The principle of uniform apportionment, rather than 'sameness'; equality may be applied to rights, opportunities or outcomes.

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Ethnic Cleansing

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The forcible expulsion or extermination of 'alien' peoples; often used as a euphemism for genocide.

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Ethnic Group

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A group of people who share a common cultural and historical identity, typically linked to a belief in common descent.

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Ethnic Nationalism

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A form of nationalism that is fuelled primarily by a keen sense of ethnic distinctiveness and the desire to preserve it.

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Ethnicity

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A sentiment of loyalty towards a distinctive population, cultural group or territorial area; bonds that are cultural rather than racial.

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Ethnocentrism

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The application of values and theories drawn from one's own culture to other groups and peoples; ethnocentrism implies bias or distortion.

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Eurocommunism

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A form of deradicalised communism that attempted to blend Marxism with liberal-democratic principles.

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Executive

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The branch of government that is responsible for implementing or carrying out law and policy.

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Expansionism

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A policy of military aggression designed to secure territorial gains, a phenomenon closely linked to imperialism.

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Fact

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A truth verified by experience or observation; something that is known to have happened or to be the case.

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Faction

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A section or group within a larger formation, usually a party; a faction is distinguished by common policy commitments or ideological leanings.

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Factionalism

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The proliferation of factions within a party or government; or the bitterness of factional rivalry or infighting.

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False Consciousness

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A Marxist term, denoting the delusion and mystification that prevents subordinate classes from recognising the fact of their own exploitation.

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Fascism

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An ideology characterised by a belief in anti-rationalism, struggle, charismatic leadership, elitism and extreme nationalism; Fascism (with a capital F) refers specifically to the Mussolini regime in Italy.

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Federalism

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A territorial distribution of power based on the sharing of sovereignty between central (usually national) bodies and peripheral ones.

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Feminism

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An ideology committed to promoting the social role of women and, in most cases, dedicated to the goal of gender equality.

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Feudalism

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A system of agrarian-based production characterised by fixed social hierarchies and a rigid pattern of obligations.

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Fiscal Crisis of the Welfare State

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The crisis in state finances that occurs when expanding social expenditure coincides with recession and declining tax revenues.

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Fiscal Policy

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Government tax and spending policies, aimed primarily at influencing aggregate demand.

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Franchise

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The right to vote.

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Fraternity

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Literally, brotherhood; bonds of sympathy and comradeship between and amongst human beings.

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Free Market

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The principle or policy of unfettered market competition, free from government influence.

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Free Press

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Newspapers (and, by extension, other media outlets) that are free from censorship and political interferece by government and, usually, are privately owned.

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Free Trade

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A system of trading between states not restricted by tariffs or other forms of protectionism.

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Freedom

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The ability to think or act as one wishes; freedom implies either noninterference (negative freedom) or personal self-development (positive freedom).

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Functionalism

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The theory that government is responsie primarily to human needs; as a theory of regional integration, it implies that the process is incremental and pragmatic.

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Fundamentalism

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A movement or style of thought that holds certain principles to be essential and unchallengeable 'truths'.

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Gemeinschaft

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Community; social bonds based on organic ties and mutual respect.

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Gender

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A cultural distinction between females and males, based on their different social roles and positions.

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General will

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The genuine interests of a collective body, equivalent to the common good; the will of all provided each person acts selflessly.

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Genocide

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An attempt to eradicate a people, identified by their nationality, race, ethnicity or religion, through acts including mass murder, forced resettlement, deliberately induced starvation, and forced sterilisation.

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Gerrymandering

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The manipulation of electoral boundaries so as to achieve political advantage for a party or candidate.

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Gesellschaft

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Association; artificial and contractual social bonds based on a recognition of overlapping interests.

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Glasnost

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Literally, openness; the relaxation of censorship and cultural repression.

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Global Consciousness

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An awareness of global interconnectedness, reflected (usually) in the form of transnational moral responsibilities and universalist ethics.

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Globalisation

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A complex web of interconnectedness through which life is increasingly shaped by decisions or events taken at a distance.

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Governance

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Broadly, the various ways in which social life is coordinated, of which government is merely one.

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Government

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The mechanism through which ordered rule is maintained; the machinery for making and enforcing collectiv decisions in society and elsewhere.

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Government Gridlock

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Paralysis resulting from institutional rivalry within government or the attempt to respond to conflicting public demands.

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Great Power

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A state deemed to rank amongst the most powerful in a hierarchical state system, reflected in its influence over minor states.

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Gross Domestic Product

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The total financial value of final goods and services produced in an economy over one year.

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'Hard' Power

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The ability to influence others through the use of threats or rewards, typically involving military 'sticks' or economic 'carrots'.

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Head of State

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The leading representative of the state, usually either a president or monarch; a title of essentially symbolic significance.

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Hegemony

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The ascendency or domination of one element of a system over others; for Marxists, hegemony implies ideological domination.

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Hierarchy

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A gradation of social positions or status; hierarchy implies structural or fixed inequality in which position is unconnected with individual ability.

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Historical Materialism

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A Marxist theory that holds that material or economic conditions ultimately structure law, politics, culture and other aspects of social existence.

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Homogenisation

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The tendency for all parts or elements to become similar or identical, as in the case of cultural globalisation.

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Human Nature

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The essential and immutable character of all human beings; that which is innate to humankind rather than socially or culturally produced.

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Human Rights

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Rights to which people are entitled by virtue of being human; universal and fundamental rights.

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Humanitarian Intervention

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Military intervention that is carried out in pursuit of humanitarian rather than strategic objectives.

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Hybridity

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A condition of social and cultural mixing; the term has been derived from cross-breeding between genetically unalike plants or animals.

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Hyperglobalism

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The view that new, globalised economic and cultural patterns are inevitable, driven by advances in information and communications technology.

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Hyperpower

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A power that commands much greater power than any of its potential rivals, and so dominates world politics.

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Ideal Type

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A mental construct designed to draw out meaning from a complex reality through the presentation of a logical extreme.

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Idealism

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A view of politics that emphasises the importance of morality and ideals; philosophically, idealism can imply that ideas are more 'real' than the material world.

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Ideology

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A more or less coherent set of ideas that provides the basis for some kind of organised political action.

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Immobilism

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Political paralysis stemming from the absence of a strong executive, caused by multiple divisions in the assembly and (probably) in society.

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Impartiality

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The absence of bias; the capacity to prevent political sympathies from intruding into professional or public responsibilities.

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Impeachment

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A formal process for the removal of a public official in the event of personal or professional wrong-doing.

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Imperial Overreach

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The tendency for imperial expansion to be unsustainable as wider military responsibilities outstrip the growth of the domestic economy.

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Imperialism

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The policy or practice of extending the power or rule of a state beyond its borders; imperialism can be an ideology of expansionism.

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Incrementalism

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The theory that decisions are made not in the light of clear-cut objectives, but through small adjustments dictated by changing circumstances.

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Indigenisation

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The process through which alien goods and practices are absorbed by being adapted to local needs and circumstances.

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Individualism

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A belief in the supreme importance of the human individual rather than of any social group or collective body.

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Industrialism

Back 206

An economic theory or system based on large-scale factory production and the relentless accumulation of capital.

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Information Society

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A society in which the creation, distribution and manipulation of information are core economic and cultural activities, underpinned by the 'new' media.

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Initiative

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A type of referendum through which the public is able to raise legislative proposals.

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Institutional Racism

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A form of racism that operates through the culture or procedural rules of an organisation, as distinct from personal prejudice.

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Integral Nationalism

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An intense, even hysterical, nationalist enthusiasm that absorbs individual identity into that of the nation.

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Interest

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That which benefits an individual or group; interests (unlike wants or preferences) are usually understood to be objective, or 'real', as opposed to 'felt'.

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Interest Group (or Pressure Group)

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An organised association that aims to influence the policies or actions of government; interest groups may have a sectional or promotional character.

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Intergovernmentalism

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Interaction between or amongst states that takes place on the basis of sovereign independence.

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International Law

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A system of rules that is binding on states, and thus defines the formal relationships between them.

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Internationalism

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A theory or practice of politics based on transnational or global cooperation; the belief that nations are artificial and unwanted formations.

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Interventionism

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Government policies designed to regulate or manage economic life; more broadly, a policy of engagement or involvement.

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Iron Triangle

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A policy network that comprises executive agencies, legislative committees and interest groups, typically found in the USA.

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Isolationism

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The policy of withdrawal from international affairs and, in particular, avoiding political or military commitment to other states.

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Issue

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A matter recognised as part of the policy agenda, over which there is public debate or disagreement.

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Jingoism

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A mood of public enthusiasm and celebration provoked by military expansion or imperial conquest.

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Judicial Activism

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The willingness of judges to arbitrate in political disputes, as opposed to merely saying what the law means.

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Judicial Independence

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The constitutional principle that there should be a strict separation between the judiciary and other branches of government; an application of the separation of powers.

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Judicial Review

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The power of the judiciary to review the laws, decrees and actions of other branches of government, and to declare them invalid.

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Judiciary

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The branch of government that is empowered to decide legal disputes and adjudicate on the meaning of the law.

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Junta

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Literally, a council or board (spanish); a group of military officers who hold political power.

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Justice

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The morally justifiable apportionment of rewards or punishments, each person being given what he or she is 'due'.

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Keynesianism

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The theory (developed by John Maynard Keynes) or policy of economic management, usually associated with the goal of full employment.

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Laissez-Faire

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(French) Literally, to leave to do; the principle of the noninterference of government in economic life.

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Law

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A set of public and enforceable rules that apply throughout a political community; the law is usually recognised as binding.

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Leadership

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Influence exerted over a larger group or body, or personal qualities that foster willing obedience in others.

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Left

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A broad ideological disposition characterised by sympathy for principles such as liberty, equality, fraternity and progress.

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Legislature

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The branch of government that is empowered to make law through the formal enactment of legislation.

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Legitimacy

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Rightfullness; a quality that confers on a command an authoritative or binding character, implying a duty to obey.

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Leninism

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Lenin's theoretical contributions to Marxism, notably his belief in the need for a revolutionary or vanguard party.

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Liberal Democracy

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A form of democracy that incorporates both limited government and a system of regular and competitive elections; liberal democracy is a regime type.

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Liberalisation

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The introduction of internal and external checks on power and/or shifts towards private enterprise and the market.

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Liberalism

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An ideology based on a commitment to individualism, freedom, toleration and consent; modern liberalism differs from classical liberalism.

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Libertarianism

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The belief that the realm of individual liberty should be maximised, usually associated with attempts to minimise the scope of public authority.

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Licence

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Excessive liberty; the abuse of or disregard for others or the law.

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Limited Government

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Government operating within constraints, usually imposed by law, a constitution or institutional checks and balances.

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Lobby

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Verb: to make representations to policy-makers.
Noun: an interest group that influences the policy process.

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Local Democracy

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A principle that embodies both the idea of local autonomy and the goal of popular responsiveness.

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Machiavellianism

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Cunning and manipulative behaviour, usually aimed at personal or political advancement (after Niccolo Machiavelli).

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Machine Politics

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A style of politics in which party 'bosses' control a mass organisation through patronage and the distribution of favours.

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Majoritarianism

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A theory or practice in which priority is accorded to the will of the majority; majoritarianism implies insensitivity towards minorities and individuals.

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Maladministration

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Bad administration; the improper use of powers, biased application of rules, failure to follow procedures, or simple incompetence.

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Managerialism

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The theory that in modern society class divisions have been replaced by ones based on managerial position and bureaucratic power; technocracy (rule by experts or specialists).

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Mandate

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An authoritative instruction or command; a mandate can be a legal order or a moral obligation.

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Manifesto

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A document outlining (in more or less detail) the policies or programme a party proposes to pursue if elected to power.

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Market

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A system of commercial exchange shaped by forces of demand and supply, and regulated by the price mechanism.

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Market Socialism

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An economic system based on self-managing cooperative enterprises operating in a context of market competition.

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Marketisation

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The extension of market relationships, based on commercial exchange and material self-interest, across the economy and, possibly, society.

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Marxism

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The theoretical system devised by Karl Marx, characterised by a belief in historical materialism, dialectical change and the use of class analysis.

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Mass Media

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Social institutions in print and electronic publishing and broadcasting that channel communication towards a large and undifferentiated audience.

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Mass Society

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A society characterised by atomism and cultural and political rootlessness; the concept highlights pessimistic trends in modern societies.

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Materialism

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An emphasis on material needs and satisfaction; philosophically, either the belief that only matter is 'real' or that economic factors are fundamental to historical explanations.

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McCarthyism

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The use of witch hunts and unscrupulous investigations, as practiced in the 1950s against 'communists' by US Senator Joseph McCarthy.

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McDonaldisation

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The process whereby global commodities and commercial and marketing practices associated with the fast-food industry have come to dominate more and more economic sectors.

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Mercantilism

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A school of economic thought that emphasised the state's role in managing international trade and guaranteeing prosperity.

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Meritocracy

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Rule by the talented; the principle that rewards and positions should be distributed on the basis of ability.

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Meta-ideology

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A higher or second-order ideology that lays down the grounds on which ideological debate can take place.

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Militarism

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The achievement of ends by military means; or the spread of military ideas and values throughout civilian society.

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Military-Industrial Complex

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A symbiotic relationship between the armed forces and defence industries, based on a common desire to increase military spending.

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Military Regime

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A regime in which political office is allocated on the basis of the holder's position in the military hierarchy.

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Minimal State

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A state whose functions are restricted to the maintenance of domestic order and the protection of property; a 'nightwatchman' state.

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Ministerial (or individual) Responsibility

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The doctrine that ministers are responsible or accountable for the actions (and mistakes) of their civil servants.

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Model

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A theoretical representation of empirical data that aims to advance understanding by highlighting significant relationships and interactions.

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Monarchy

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An institution in which the post of head of state is filled through inheritance or by dynastic succession; monarchy may be absolute or constitutional.

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Monetarism

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The theory that inflation is caused by an increase in the supply of money; 'too much money chases too few goods'.

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Monetary Policy

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A government's influence over the supply and value of money, exercised principally through the mechanism of interest rates.

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Monism

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A belief in only one theory or value; monism is reflected politically in enforced obedience to a unitary power and is thus implicitly totalitarian.

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Multilateralism

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A system of coordinated relations between three or more states based on principles of conduct laid down by treaties and international organisations.

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Multilevel Governance

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A complex policy proces in which authority is distributed horizontally and vertically across subnational, national and supranational levels of government.

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Multiplier Effect

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The mechanism through which a change in aggregate demand has an increased effect on national income as it circulates through the economy.

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Multipolarity

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An international system in which there are three or more power centres, creating a bias in favour of fluidity and, perhaps, instability.

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Nanny State

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A state with extensive social responsibilities; the term implies that welfare programmes are unwarranted and demeaning to the individual.

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Nation

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A group of people who share a common cultural inheritance and regard themselves as a natural political community.

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Nation-State

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A sovereign political association within which citizenship and nationality overlap; one nation within a single state.

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National Self-Determination

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The principle that the nation is a sovereign entity; self-determination implies both national independence and democratic rule.

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National Socialism (or Nazism)

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A form of fascism practiced in Hitler's Germany and characterised by totalitarian terror, genocidal anti-Semitism, and expansionist racism.

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Nationalism

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An ideology that takes the nation to be the central principle of political organisation; nationalism can be associated with a wide range of ideals and goals.

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Natural Aristocracy

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The idea that talent and leadership are innate or inbred qualities that cannot be acquired through effort or self-advancement.

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Natural Law

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A moral system to which human laws do, or should, conform; natural law lays down universal standards of conduct.

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Natural Rights

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God-given rights that are fundamental to human beings and are therefore inalienable (they cannot be taken away).

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Negative Freedom

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Noninterference, the absence of external constraints on the individual; sometimes seen as freedom 'from'.

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Negative Rights

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Rights that mark out a realm of unconstrained action, and thus check the responsibilities of government.

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Neocolonialism

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Control exercised over a foreign territory through economic (and sometimes cultural) domination rather than formal political direction.

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Neoconservatism

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An updated version of social conservatism that emphasises the need to restore authority and the return to traditional values (this term is also used to describe a distinctive approach to foreign policy).

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Neocorporatism

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A tendency found in western polyarchies for organised interests to be granted privileged and institutionalised access to policy formulation.

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Neofunctionalism

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A revision of functionalism that recognises that regional integration in one area generates pressure for further integration in the form of 'spillover'.

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Neo-idealism

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A perspective on international politics that emphasises the practical value of morality and, in particular, respect for human rights and national independence.

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Neoliberalism

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An updated version of classical political economy, dedicated to market individualism and minimal statism.

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Neo-Marxism

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An updated and revised form of Marxism that rejects determinism, the primacy of economics, and the privileged status of the proletariat.

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Neopluralism

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A revised form of pluralism that takes account of the imbalances of the market and disproportionate power of private business.

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Neo-realism

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A perspective on international politics that modifies the power-politics model by highlighting the structural constraints of the international system.

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Neutrality

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The absence of partisanship or commitment; a refusal to 'take sides'.

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New Democracies

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Regimes in which the process of democratic consolidation is incomplete; democracy is not the 'only show in town'.

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New Left

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An ideological movement that sought to revitalise socialist thought by developing a radical critique of advanced industrial society, stressing the need for decentralisation, participation and personal liberation.

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New Public Management

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The incorporation of private sector management techniques into government and the transfer of public functions to private bodies.

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New Right

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An ideological trend within conservatism that embraces a blend of market individualism and social authoritarianism.

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Nightwatchman State

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A state with minimal responsibilities, linked primarily to the maintenance of domestic order and personal security.

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Noblesse Oblige

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(French) Literally, the obligations of the nobility; in general terms the responsibility to guide or protect those less fortunate or less privileged.

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Nomenklatura

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(Russian) A system of vetted appointments that operates through a list of approved candidates.

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Normative

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The prescription of values and standards of conduct; what 'should be' rather than what 'is'.