Political Science

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To what extent can political science be said to be a science discipline?

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Introduction:

The question seeks to determine the scientific status of political science.

We shall briefly discuss the subject matter, political science then go further to discuss its scientific status.

Political science deals with politics, it revolves around politics.

Politics has no generally accepted meaning. There are so many scholarly definitions.

We shall briefly consider the point of view of these scholars:

Aristotle

Harold Lasswell

David Easton

Alfred de Grazia

Politics as a concept can only be understood by examining the various conception of politics by different scholars.

According to Aristotle, man by nature is a political animal and whenever two people interact with one another, they are invariably involved in politics.

Harold Lasswell viewed politics as being centred around power. For him, politics is all about who gets what, when and how.

David Easton defined politics as the authoritative allocation of resources or values for a society. In addition, a policy is authoritative when the people to whom it is intended to apply or who are affected by it consider they must or ought to obey it.

Alfred de Grazia viewed politics as the events that happen around the decision making centers of government.For Karl Marx, politics is an interclass struggle for a redistribution of social goods.

In summary, we can say that politics involves the struggle between competing and/or conflicting desires, interests, politics, goals and values. The struggle is either for maintaining an existing order or for redefining and redistributing societal resources and values which results in authoritative allocation.

The term, political science was coined from the word, science politique by a French political philosopher, Jean Bodin(1530-1596).

Political science therefore, as an academic discipline is concerned with the systematic study and analysis of politics. It attempts to understand the political behaviour of individuals, groups and societies, the factors and conditions that affect political actors, political events, and political institutions.

Having defined the concept of political science, we shall now discuss its scientific status.

Aristotle regarded politics as the master science on which all branches of human activity depended.

Political science can be regarded as a science because it uses a scientific approach, that is, political scientists approach their study in an objective, rational and systematic manner.

Scientific knowledge is usually defined as a body of systematic knowledge about a well defined area of injury, basically, science involves a method of assumptions and certain goals. The major objectives of any science is the description of a phenomena and how it can be explained and predicted.

Characteristics of science include:

1. Pattern of behaviour, which involves the discoveries and description of uniformities and regularities in the behaviour of natural phenomena.

2. Empirism, this involves verification and observation of facts or experimentation in a laboratory settings.

3. Inter-subjectivity, this means that scientific knowledge should be communicable or transmissible. It is subject to scrutiny in some way by more than one person.

4. Objectivity or value free analysis, this means that scientific knowledge must be exclusive of sentiments, feelings and interest of researchers.

5. Universal law and generalization, involves the possibility of laying down good general principles .

6. High level theory, this has to do with the collections of logically related generalization to explain events and situations to predict future happenings.

However, even though political science employs the above mentioned characteristics of science, it is invariably a social science thus, the systematic features of science does not fit in as a glove to political science because of these reasons:

1. It is difficult to observe the regularities and uniformities in human behavior. This is because human beings can always change their actions to whatever they wish they can always adopt themselves to changing situations.

2. Closely related to the above is the lack of useful generalization about human behavior.

3. Problems of explaining and predicting the behaviour of individuals.

4. Problems of subjectivity: it is very difficult to eliminate the subjective elements, personal value, feelings, attitude, preferences, opinions and bases for political investigations.

5. Qualifications for precision is still an unattainable goal because of the lack of agreement of the basic concepts and categories of the study of the study of political science.

6. Human behavior cannot be directly observable.

In conclusion, political science employs scientific method of study; however, it studies human behavior and society which is highly unpredictable and at such it is a social science thus, cannot be perfectly called a science discipline.

Front 2

Discuss four major approaches of the study of political science.

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Approach means

Front 3

Define democracy and identify its attributes, merits and demerits.

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Democracy is derived from the combination of two Greek words, demo which means people and kratia or kratos which means government or rule.

Democracy has no universally accepted definition as there are many scholarly definitions, popular of which is Abraham Lincoln's.

Abraham Lincoln defined democracy as the government of the people by the people and for the people.

Other scholarly definitions include:

Democracy is the rule of the poor and the rule of the majority- Aristotle

Democracy can be defined as a form of government in which the people exercise their governing power either directly or through representatives periodically elected by them.

Features of democracy include:

1. Principle of popular consultation: in a democracy, decisions are taken after the citizens have been widely consulted.

2. Political sovereignty: in a democracy, power belongs to the people (electorate).

3. Political equality: Democratic equality implies one man one vote irrespective of social status, wealth, religion, etc

4. Majority rule and minority rights: the majority will always have their way while the minority opinion must be respected.

5. Fundamental human rights:

6. Independent of the judiciary: judiciary must be independent in order to play its role as an arbiter.

7. It opposes arbitrary rule

8. Rule of law.

9. Supremacy of the constitution

10. Freedom of the press

11. Political parties

12. Periodic elections

Merits of democracy:

1. It gives the electorate the opportunity to elect leaders of their choice.

2. It ensures equal opportunity for all citizens in all spheres of life.

3. Democracy promotes stability in the country. A bad government can be peacefully removed from office through the process of election.

4. The government has legitimacy because the elected government has the support of the people.

5. Those in government rule according to the provisions of the constitution.

6. It does not allow for misuse of power because power is not vested in the hands if a single person.

7. It encourages tolerance of the views of the opposition. The majority will always have their way and the minority always have their say.

8. Where democracy operates, there is equality of individual rights and freedom.

9. The rights and interests of every person are guaranteed.

10. Democracy allows for expression of opinion and does not suppress opinions. Citizens opinions are valued.

Demerits:

1. It leads to slow decision making because when every person is given opportunity to express his/her views before the final decision is taken, time is wasted.

2. It is expensive to operate because it involves many people in the decision making process.

3. Incompetent people may be elected into government: since people are elected based on popular opinion, a person may be elected based on popularity rather than competency.

4. Those representing the people may be representing their own interest.

5. Elections held in most cases may not be free and fair, leading to the enthronement of irresponsible, callous and selfish individuals.

6. The citizens may not be sufficiently educated to appreciate the meaning of the issues which come before them at election.

7.

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Capitalism

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Capitalism is an economic and social system in which individuals and groups are allowed to own, manage and control the means of production and distribution in the economy according to their ability and resources. Capitalism arises from the doctrine of liberalism and laissez faire economic system. It replaces feudalism which was the oldest form of government in Europe in the medieval time.

The principles that under gird capitalism include the following suppositions:

1. That the role of the government should be limited to the maintenance of law and order , upholding the sanctity of contract, regulating currency , raising taxes and containing external aggressions.

2. That economic power should be diffused among many property owners rather than be concentrated in the hands of one owner, that is the state.

3. That government should not engage in any effort to redistribute economic reward since the system ensures that wealth goes to those who serve the needs of the society best while poverty goes to those who contribute little.

Features of capitalism:

1. Consumer sovereignty

2. Production is decided on consumer choice.

3. Means of production and distribution of goods and services and exchange are in the hands of private individuals.

4. It operates a competitive market.

5. Government participation is very low in capitalist economy.

6. The basic motive of production is profit making.

7. It is highly specialized coupled with high degree of efficiency.

8. Source of capital, individuals source their capitals themselves.

Merits:

1. The encourages competition.

2. There is specialization and hardwork in the system.

3. The people have a choice to make in almost everything needed or demanded.

4. Economic development is rapid because the system is all embracing.

5. Initiatives are encouraged.

6. Economic and political growth are enhanced because people contribute.

7. It is democratic in nature. Individuals are free to pursue any goal or go into production without any hindrance.

Demerits:

1. The system is highly exploitative. For instance, some companies exploit their employees by paying them peanuts even when they making huge profits.

2. Producers make excessive profits to the detriment of the consumers.

3. There is political and economic inequality in the system. The gap between the rich and the poor is wide.

4. There is large scale of unemployment. The few available jobs created cannot go round the large number of job seekers

5. There is an unhealthy rivalry among producers of the same or different products in the capitalist system.

6. The rate of unemployment in the system leads people to commit diverse crimes such as smuggling, 419, etc.

7. Capitalism makes workers wage slaves. Over reliance on salary.

8. Income is not justifiably distributed in the capitalist system.

9. Price of commodities does not correspond to the real needs of the community but to the demands of those who have money to spend.

10. Strike actions.

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Socialism

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The theory of capitalism was propounded by Karl Marx as a protest against the evils of capitalism.

Socialism can be defined as a social, political and economic system in which the state owns and controls the means of production, distribution and exchange of goods and services. Its aim is to ensure equal distribution of the nation's wealth. The state acting on behalf of the people is seen as impartial and can adequately control the productive and distributive activities of the state. Countries practicing socialism include, Russia, China, Romania, Poland, Tanzania, Ethiopia, etc.

Features:

1. The state owns and controls the means of production and distribution of goods and services.

2. Equal distribution of the nation's wealth is maintained.

3. There is gainful employment for all citizens.

4. Free education and free medical services are provided for all citizens.

5. The existence of only one political party.

6. Prices of all state products and services are uniform.

7. Competition is absent.

8. Individuals are not allowed to privately own the means of production and distribution.

9. Production is mainly embarked upon to satisfy the needs of the people and not for profit.

10. There is one central planning system.

Merits:

1. Job security, no fear of undue loss of jib since it is the government that creates job and employs all.

2. There is industrial harmony because the conditions of service of workers are uniformly determined by the state.

3. The tendency of exploitation is eliminated.

4. The welfare of the people is adequately taken care of by the state.

5. There is no class distinction in the system..

6. People are brought together under one central authority.

7. Resources are equitably distributed among citizens.

8. There is no unhealthy rivalry in the area of production.

Demerits:

1. The absence of competition affects the quality of goods produced. Most of the goods are of low quality.

2. The government controls all aspects of the economy. It dies not give room for individual initiatives.

3. The economy may not grow fast because individuals are not allowed to take part in running the economy.

4. Since all goods are produced by the government, the consumer may not have alternatives in the choice of goods.

5. It does not encourage division of labour and specialization.

6. The sense of creativity is absent in the life of an individual since the state does not encourage such.

7. Most socialist states are one party States and can have the tendency of being dictatorial.

8. Economic development is slow.

9. The monopoly of the control of the means of production and distribution may lead to inefficiency.

Front 6

Explain the scope of Public Administration

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The word administration comes from the Latin word, administere which means to care for or look after people, to manage affairs. Administration may be defined as group activity which involves corporation and coordination for the purpose of achieving desired goals or objectives.

Public refers to government. Public administration therefore, refers to that part of administration which pertains to the administrative activities of the government.

Woodrow Wilson views public administration as the detailed and systematic application of law. Every particular application of law is an act of administration.

According to Perey McQueen, public administration is administration related to the operation of government whether local or central.

L.D. White views public administration as consisting all those operations having for their purpose the fulfilment or enforcement of public policies as declared by the component authority.

Luther Gulick defined public administration as that part of science of administration which has to do with the government and thus, concerns itself primarily with the work of the government. Gulick coined the acronym POSDCORB as the elements of public administration.

P. Planning

O. Organizing

S. Staffing

D. Directive

C. Coordinating

O. Officing

R. Reporting

B. Boarding

The POSDCORB activities are said to represent the techniques which are common in the field of administration or management.

The importance of public administration include:

1. Public administration serves as an instrument for implementing government policies.

2. It is an instrument of social change and economic development.

3. It delivers essential services to the society.

4. It is the basis of governance

5. Public administration provide stability. It ensures the continuity of government.

6. Regulates and controls private economic enterprise.

7. Provides security.

8. It gives experts the opportunity to handle technical matters of the government.

9. It is relevant as a field of study.

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Similarities between public and private administration

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1. Both types of administration are interested in economic and sociopolitical matters.

2. Private administration takes place within a dynamic sociopolitical environment, therefore, it also affected by the issues of morals and ethics confronting society just as public administration is.

3. Both public and private administration maintain close contact with people to inform them about their services and also get feedback about their services and products.

4. Both public and private administration as a process, take place within a formal organization.

5. Both use human resources to achieve their goals.

6. Both administrations rely on common skills, techniques and procedures. There is a similar type of hierarchy and management systems. They have the same type of organizational structure.

7. Both carry on continuous effort to improve their internal working for the efficient delivery of service to people or customers.

8. They both have the principle of profit motive.

9. Both are subjected to legal constraints by the government.

10.

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Differences between public and private administration

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1. Politics versus profits.

Public administration is politically based, concerned with distribution of resources in the society.

While private administration is profit motivated.

2. Accountability.

Public administration is accountable to the state and citizens.

While private administration is accountable to individuals.

3. Breadth and scope.

Public administration has a wide scope of administration. It covers all sectors of the society, health, education, public service and more.

While private administration is restricted to the commodity the company is dealing with.

4. Monopoly.

The government has monopoly over issues that affect the lives of the citizens of the country.

While private sector is restricted to what it can handle in the society.

5. Legal framework.

Public administration is regulated by the provisions of the constitution.

While private administration don't have laws drawn from the constitution.

6. Treatment of citizens.

Private administration can give preferential treatment to individuals.

While public administration sees all citizens as equal.

7. Level of efficiency.

Bureaucracy can affect the affairs of public administration thereby tampering with its efficiency.

While private administration is more efficient.

8. Nature of operation.

Public administration is more comprehensive while private administration is restricted to private specialization.

Front 9

Discuss the salient features of a state.

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Introduction:

It is important to explain what a state is before discussing its salient features.

Although, there is no academic consensus on the most appropriate definition of a state, there are various scholarly definitions which we shall look at.

Jean Jacque Rousseau observed that the state is a form of association which will defend with the whole force the person and goods of each associate, and in which while each uniting himself with all may still obey himself alone and remain free as before.

Max Weber describes the state as a compulsory political organization with a centralized government that maintains a monopoly of the legitimate use of force within a certain territory.

According to Murray Rothbard, the state is that organization in society which attempts to maintain a monopoly of the use of force and violence in a given territorial area, in particular, it is the only organization in society which obtains its revenue not by voluntary contribution or payment for services rendered but by coercion.

Harold Baski defines state as a territorial society divided into government and subjects. The government being a body of persons within the state who apply the legal imperatives upon which the state rests different from any other body of persons with the territorial society. They are entitled to use coercion to see that these imperatives are obeyed.

A state therefore, is a politically organized body of people inhabiting a defined geographical entity with an organized legitimate government.

Salient features of a state include, territory, population, government, sovereignty and permanence.

Front 10

Discuss the reasons for the creation of local government in Nigeria.

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William Robson(1949) defines local government as involving the conception of territorial non sovereign community possessing the legal right and the necessary organization to regulate its own affairs.

In support of the above definition, Barber (1975) defines local government as a system of geographical decentralization in which some functions and responsibilities of government are delegated to governmental units or bodies at the local level.

Local government is therefore, a political subunit of a nation established by law. This level is vested with power over local affairs which include the power to impose taxes for the purpose of revenue generation.

Reasons for the creation of local government in Nigeria:

1. To bring government nearer to the people.

2. To give the people of the rural areas a sense of belonging by ensuring their participation in the decision making function of government.

3. To avoid too much concentration of powers in the central and state government.

4. To achieve rapid development of the rural areas.

5. Provide employment opportunities

6. To help in educating the people at the grass level about the policies and actions of the central government.

7. To provide training ground for political aspirants.

8. To preserve the heritage and traditional institutions of government at the local areas.

9. To annihilate the fears of ethnic elimination and feeling of insecurity.

1976 local government reforms:

The 1976 reforms changed the multiple system of local government councils to a single tier all purpose local government. All the local government were made the third tier of government after the central and state governments.

Features:

1. Uniform system of local government

2. Federal government involvement

Service/board commission

4. Statutory functions

5. Single tier

6. Appointment

7. Unified condition of service

8. Grants

9. Key committees

10. Term of office . councillors three years.

11. Exclusion of traditional rulers.

12. Establishment of traditional emirate council.

Functions of local government:

1. Establishment and maintenance of cemeteries and homes for the destitute.

2. Collection of rates, radio and television licenses.

3. Licencing of bicycles, trucks, canoes, wheel barrows and carts.

4. Establishment and maintenance and regulations of markets, motor parks, and public conveniences.

5. Construction and maintenance of roads, streets, drains and other public highways, parks, open spaces or such public facilities as may be prescribed from time to time by the House of Assembly of the state.

6. Registration of births, deaths and marriages.

7. Assessment of privately owned houses or tenements for the purpose of levying such rates.

8. Control and regulations of outdoor advertising and hoardings. Movement and keeping of pets of all descriptions. Shops and kiosks. Restaurants and other places for sale of food to the public. Laundries.

9. Naming of streets, roads and numbering of houses.

Problems:

1. Shortage of trained personnel.

2. Acute shortage of fund.

3. Political interference

4. Bribery and corruption

5. Embezzlement of fund by some officials.

6. Granting of undue favour in award of contracts.

7. Tribalism, nepotism and favouritism.

Solutions:

1. Constitutional reforms to ensure real autonomy of local government.

2. Capacity building for human resources to develop and implement policies.

3. Incentives for good performance

4. Curtailing corrupt practice in local government administration.

Sources of local government revenue:

1. The National Assembly make provisions for statutory allocation of public revenue to local government councils.

2. House of Assembly of states make provisions for statutory allocation of public revenue to local government councils.

3. Grants from the central and state government.

4. Collection of rates.

5. Commercial ventures like transportation

6. Payment fines.

Front 11

Distinguish between the Presidential and parliamentary systems of government.

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