Phrd 307: Anatomy And Physiology [Chpt 12]

Front 1

The basic functional units of the nervous system are individual cells called what?

Back 1

Neurson

Front 2

Cells that supports neuron are called whatr?

Back 2

Neuroglia/Glial cells

Front 3

Identify some functions of the NEUROGLIA/GLIAL CELLS?

Back 3

Separate and protect the neurons

Provide a supportive framework for neural tissue

Act as phagocytes

Help regulate the composition of the interstitial fluid

Front 4

What are the two anatomical division of the nervous system?

Back 4

Central Nervous System

Peripheral Nervous System

Front 5

The CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM is compose of two complex organs called what?

Back 5

Brain
Spinal cord

Front 6

What are the responsibilities of CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM?

Back 6

Integrating, processing, and coordinating sensory data and motor commands

Front 7

The PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM includes what part of the body?

Back 7

Includes all the neural tissue OUTSIDE the CNS

Front 8

What are the responsibilities of the Peripheral Nervous System?

Back 8

Delivers sensory information to the CNS and carries motor commands to peripheral tissue and systems

Front 9

Define each: simple nerves, cranial nerves, and spinal nerves?

Back 9

Simiple nerves: associated blood vessesl and connective tissues

Cranial nerves: nerves connected to the brain

Spinal nerves: nerves attached tothe spinal cord

Front 10

Which division of the nervous system is further divided into AFFERENT and EFFERENT divisions?

Back 10

Peripheral Nervous System

Front 11

What are the difference between AFFERENT and EFFERENT divisions?

Back 11

Afferent divison of the PNS bring s sensory information to the CNS from receptors in the peripheral tissue and organs

Efferent division of the PNS carries motor commands from the CNS to muscles, glands, and adipose tissue.

Front 12

굉장하

Back 12

to be grand

Front 13

The SOMATIC NERVOUS SYSTEM and AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM are divided from the _____ _____ of the _____ ______ _____.

Back 13

The SOMATIC NERVOUS SYSTEM and AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM are divided from the EFFERENT DIVISON of the PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

Front 14

The somatic nervous system is mainly in control of what?

The autonomic nervous system is mainly in control of what?

Back 14

Skeletal muscle contraction

Provides automatic regulation of smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glandular secretions a the subconscious level

Front 15

SYMPATHETIC division and the PARASYMPATHETIC division are part of what system?

Back 15

Autonomic Nervous System

Front 16

There are a variety of shapes of neurons, but the most commonly found type is called what?

Back 16

Mutlipolar Neurons

Front 17

Describe the structures of multipolar neurons?

Back 17

Large cell body that is connected to a single, elongated axon and several short branched dendrites

Front 18

Bundles of neurofilaments extend into the dendrites and axon, providing internal support for these slender dendrites, what is the term?

Back 18

Neurofibrils

Front 19

The cytoskeleton of the perikaryon is made up of what?

Back 19

Neurofilaments
Neurotubules

Front 20

The cytoplasm surrounds the nucleus and what other structure?

Back 20

Perikaryon

Front 21

What function does PERIKARYON serves?

Back 21

Contain organelles that provide energy and synthesize organic materials, especially the chemical neurotransmitter taht are important in cell to cell communication

Front 22

Areas containing clusters of rough endoplasmic reticulum and free ribosomes are are called what?

Back 22

Nissl bodies

Front 23

What is the main reason why CNS neursons cannot divide and cannot be replaced if lost to injury or disease?

Back 23

Most neurons lack centrioles, the organelles responsible for the organization of the cytoskeleton and the movement of chromosomes during mitosis and thus cannot divide

Front 24

In which area of the neuron can they eceives information from other neurons?

Back 24

Dendritic spines

Front 25

Define AXON?

Back 25

An axon is a long cytoplasmic process capable of propagating an electrical impulse (action potential)

Front 26

Define the following terms: axoplasm, axolemma, collaterals, and telodendria?

Back 26

Axoplasm: cytoplasm of the axon

Axolemma: specialized portion of the plasma membrane

Collateral: side branches from the axon

Telodendria: series of fine extensions

Front 27

The cell body and the axon are attach at what point?

Back 27

Initial segment of the axon in the multipolar neuron is attached tothe cell body at a thick region called the axon hillock

Front 28

What important function does COLLATERAL enable?

Back 28

Enable a single neuron to communicate with several other cells

Front 29

Define SYNAPASE?

Back 29

A specialized site where the neuron communicates another cell.

Front 30

Synapses can be conducted with the help of two cells what are they?

Back 30

Presynaptic cells
Postsynaptic cells

Front 31

What is the difference between PRESYNAPTIC CELLS and POSTSYNAPTIC CELLS?

Back 31

Presynaptic cells: sends the message

Postsynaptic cell: receives the message

Front 32

The release of chemicals called the neurotransmitters by the synaptic terminal commonly initiates what?

Back 32

Communication between cells at a synapse

Neurotransmitter are release by the presynaptic cells

Front 33

True or False: Both the presynaptic cells and postsynaptic cells are neurson?

Back 33

False, the presynaptic cells are usually neurons, however the postsynaptic cell can be a neuron or another type of cell

Front 34

The structure of the synaptic terminal depends on what?

Back 34

The type of postsynatpic cell

Front 35

What is the function of synaptic cleft?

Back 35

Separates the presynaptic membrane, where neurotransmitters are released from the postsynatpic membrane that bears the receptors for neurotransmitter

Front 36

Movements of materials between the cell body and synaptic knobs occurs through what?

Back 36

Axoplasmic transport

Front 37

In what direction can axoplasmic transport take place?

Back 37

Anterograde: the flow of materials from the cell body to the synaptic know
- carry by kinesin

Retrograde: flow to the cell body
-dynein

Front 38

Identify 4 classes of neurons base on their structures?

Back 38

Anaxonic
Bipolar
Unipolar
Multipolar

Front 39

Describe the difference between the 4 structurally different neurson (anaxonic, biopolar, unipolar, and multipolar)?

Back 39

Anaxonic: indistinguishable, small, located in the brain, and functions are unknown

Bipolar: 2 distinct process one at the tip of the dendrites and the other the cell body; Relay information about sight, smell, or hearing from receptors cells

Unipolar: dendrites and axon are continuous (fused)

Multipolar: two more dendrites and a single axon; control skeletal muscles;

Front 40

Name this neuron base on its structure

Back 40

Unipolar

Front 41

Name this neuron base on structure

Back 41

Anaxonic

Front 42

Name this neuron base on structure?

Back 42

Multipolar

Front 43

Name this neuron base on structure?

Back 43

Bipolar

Front 44

Neurons can also be classify based on function, what are the neurons called?

Back 44

Sensory
Motor
Interneurons

Front 45

What is another name for SENSORY NEURONS?

Back 45

Afferent

Front 46

This chapter discuss 3 different receptors, name them and define?

Back 46

Interoceptors: monitor digestive, cardio, urinary, and reproductive; provide sensation of taste, deep pressure, and pain

Exteroceptors: provide information about the external environment in the form of touch, temperature, pressure sensation, and comoplex sense of light, smell, and hearing

Proprioceptors: monitor the position and movement of skeletal muscle and joints

Front 47

What is another name for MOTOR NEURONS?

Back 47

Efferent

Front 48

What are interneurons responsible for?

Back 48

Both the distrubution of sensory information and the coordination of motor activity

Front 49

The CNS is compose of 4 different types of NEUROGLIA, what are they?

Back 49

Ependymal cells
Astrocytes
Oligodendrocytes

Front 50

What is the central canal and its importance?

Back 50

Central canal is describe as a narrow passageway in the spinal cord.

The central canal is filled with cerebrospinal fluid that provides a protective cushion and transport dissolved gases, nutrients, wastes, and other materials

Front 51

The central canal (spinal cord) and ventricle (brain) are lined by what kind of neuroglia cells?

Back 51

Ependymal cells

Front 52

Which neuroglia cell is responsible for assisting in the production, circulation, and monitor of the cerebrospinal fluid?

Back 52

Ependymal cells

Front 53

Which neuroglia cells provide the structural framework

Back 53

Astrocytes
Oligodendrocytes

Front 54

Which neuroglia cells are the largest in the CNS?

Back 54

Astrocytes

Front 55

Why is absolutely necessary to physically and biochemical isolate neural tissue from the general circulation?

Back 55

Because hormones, amino acids, or other chemicals in the blood can alter neuron function.

Front 56

Which cells has the capability to create BLOOD BRAIN BARRIER?

Back 56

Endothelial cells controls the chemical exchange between the blood and interstitial fluid and thus created BBB

Front 57

Which neuroglia cells are the smallest in numbers and size?

Back 57

Microglia

Front 58

Which neuroglia cells are the most abundant in the CNS?

Back 58

Astrocytes

Front 59

Which neuroglia cells possess slender cytoplasmic extensions?

Back 59

Astrocytes
Oligodendrocytes
Microglia

Front 60

What are myelin?

Back 60

Membraneous wrapping of electrical insulation

Front 61

What is the advantage of having myelin wrap around axon?

Back 61

Increases the speed at which an action potential travels along the axon

Front 62

When an axon branches, the branches originate at _______

Back 62

Nodes or Nodes of Ranvier

Front 63

What are the functions of the ASTROCYTES?

Back 63

Maintaing blood brain barrier

Provide structural support

Repairing damage neural tissue

Regulate ion, nutrient, and dissolved gas concentration

Absorbs and recycle neurotransmitter (Direct both the growth and interconnection of developing neurons)

Front 64

Why are myelinated axon appear to be white?

Back 64

Primarily because of the lipids within the lipids

Front 65

What is the difference between WHITE and GRAY MATTERS?

Back 65

White matters: regions dominated by myelinated axons

Gray matters: unmyelinated axons

Front 66

What are the special functions of OLIGODENDROCYTES?

Back 66

Myeylinate CNS axons

Provide structural framework

Front 67

Which function is responsible for Removal of cell debris, wastes, and pathogens by phagocytosis?

Back 67

Microglia

Front 68

Definition of GANGLIA?

Back 68

Ganglia occurs when cell bodies of neurons in the PNS are clustered in masses

Front 69

What are two types of neuroglia cells in the PNS?

Back 69

Satellites cells
Schwann cells

Front 70

Which neuroglia cell is responsible for the regulation of oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrient, and neurotransmitter level around neurons in ganglia?

Back 70

Satellite cells

Front 71

Which neuroglia cells are also functions to shielded the axons whether myelinated or unmyelinated from contact with interstitial fluids?

Back 71

Schwann cells

Front 72

Which neuroglia cells are responsible for for myelination of peripheral axons and participate in repair process after injury?

Back 72

Schwann cells

Front 73

Wheras an _______ in the CNS may myelinated portions of several adjacent axons, a _______ can myelinated only one segment of a single axon?

Back 73

Oligodendrocytes

Schwann cells

Front 74

Define WALLERIAN DEGENERATION?

Back 74

Wallarian degeneration is the process in which the axon distal to the injury site degenerates and macrophages migrate into the area to phagocytize the debris

Front 75

Define Graded Potential?

Back 75

A typical stimulus produces a temporary, localized change in the resting potential, in which can be decrease with distance from the stimulus

Front 76

Give the genreral overview of Neural Activities?

Back 76

All living cells start out at resting potential.

Until a typical stimulus is produced (temporary)...if the graded potential is large enough action potential will take place

Synaptic activities releases neurotransmitters and change the membrane's permeability

Front 77

Intracellular fluid (cytosols) contain high amount of which ions?

Back 77

Potassium and negatively charged proteins

Front 78

Extracellular fluid contain high amount of which ions?

Back 78

Sodium and Chloride ions

Front 79

If the cell is always at a resting potential, how does ion movement occur?

Back 79

Leak channels, where membrane channels are always open

Active transport mechanism also move specific ions into and out of the cell.

Front 80

Passive forces acting acorss the plasma membrane are determine by two gradients, which are?

Back 80

Chemical Gradients
Electrical Gradients

Front 81

Chemical gradient is driven by what?

Back 81

Concentration gradient

Front 82

Give an example of concentration gradients?

Back 82

Intracellular concentration of Potassium is high so they tend to diffuse out of the cell whereas sodium tend to diffuse in

Front 83

Give an example of electrical gradient?

Back 83

Take potassium and sodium as an example again, in which the plasma membrane is more perameable to potassium than to sodium, so potassium leave the cell and result in the interor having a net loss of positive charges leaving the cytosol with an excess of negative charged proteins.

As well as the extracellular fluid display more positive charged

Front 84

What is the average potential difference of neurons?

Back 84

-70 millvolts

Front 85

Define CURRENT?

Back 85

A movement of charges to eliminated a potential difference between them (opposite charged)

Front 86

If a barrier exist, how would one calculated the current?

Back 86

If a barrier exist, the amount of current depends on how easliy the ion can cross the membrane

Front 87

What is RESISTANCE?

Back 87

Resistance of membrane is a measure of how much the membrane restricts ion movement

Front 88

Does CURRENT and RESISTNACE have a direct proportional relationship or indirect proportional relatioship?

Back 88

Indirect Proportional Relationship

Front 89

Define ELECTROCHEMICAL GRADIENT?

Back 89

Electrochemical gradient for a specific ion is the sum of the chemical and electrical forces acting on that ion across the plasma membrane

Front 90

Why does the chemical gradient for potassium ions tends to drive them out of the cell?

Back 90

Because intracellular concentration of potassium ions is high, whereas the extracellular concentration of potassium is very low, thus potassium wants to travel outside.

Front 91

Why would the electrical gradient opposes the movement of potassium outside?

Back 91

Because potassium inside and outside of the cell are attracted to negative charged on the inside of the plasma membrane and repel by positive charged on the outside

Front 92

Define Equilibrium Potential?

Back 92

The transmembrane potential at which there is no net movement of a particular ion across the plasma membrane

Front 93

Why does the chemical gradient for sodium ions tend to drive them inside the cell?

Back 93

Because there is a high concentration of sodium outside the cell and the sodium is attracted to the negative charged inside the plasma membrane

Front 94

True or False: Both electrical and chemical gradients forces sodium into the cell?

Back 94

True

Front 95

If the plasma membrane was freely permeable to sodium ions and enters the plasma membrane, what event would stop the influx of sodium to continue?

Back 95

Until the interior of the plasma membrane contained enough excess positive charges to reverse the electrical gradient rsulting in positive charged repulsion

Front 96

What is potential energy?

Back 96

Stored energy

Front 97

Give an example of potential energy?

Back 97

Electochemical gradient

Front 98

Describe the SODIUM POTASSIUM PUMP?

Back 98

This pump exchanges 3 intracellular sodium ions for two extracellular potassium ions

Front 99

The SODIUM POTASSIUM PUMP involved what kind of carrier protein?

Back 99

ATPase

Front 100

What is so significant about the SODIUM POTASSIUM PUMP?

Back 100

It ejects sodium ions as quickly as they enter the cell and thus the activity of the exchange pump eactly balances the passive forces of diffusion and the resting potential remains stable

Front 101

Why did the electrochemical gradient change from -70mV to -90mV?

Back 101

Because the plasma membrane is highly permeable to potassium ions

Front 102

Why is the electrochemical gradient for sodium so high, from -70mV to +66mV?

Back 102

The membrane's permeability to these ions is very low

Front 103

True or False: Sodium and Potassium ion channels are active?

Back 103

False: both active and passive active

Front 104

What is another name for passive channels?

Back 104

Leak channels

Front 105

What is another name for active channels?

Back 105

Gated channels

Front 106

What is the difference between active and passive channels?

Back 106

Passive channels are always open

Active channels are open or close in response to specific stimulus

Front 107

Gated/Active channel can be in 3 different states, identify the states?

Back 107

Close but capable of opening

Open (activated)

Closed and incapable of opening (inactivated)

Front 108

Identify the 3 types of gated/active channels?

Back 108

Chemically gated channels

Voltage gated channels

Mechanically gated channels

Front 109

What are the differences between chemically gated channels, voltaged gated channels, and mechanical gated channels?

Back 109

Chemically gated channels: open or close when they bind specific receptors

Voltage gated channels: open or closed in response to changes in the transmembrane potential

Mechanicla gated channels: open or close in reponse to physical distortion of the membrane surface

Front 110

Give an example of Chemical gated channels?

Back 110

Receptors bind to acetylcholine at the neuromuscular junction

Front 111

Give examples of Voltage gated channels?

Back 111

Voltage gated sodium, potassiu, and calcium channels

Front 112

Identify one characteristics of Voltage gated channels?

Back 112

Excitable membranes: a membrane capable of generating and conducting an action potential

Front 113

Why are mechanically gated channels useful?

Back 113

Because they are important in sensory receptors that respond to touch, pressure, or vibration

Front 114

Define DEPOLARIZATION?

Back 114

Any shift from the resting potential toward a more positive potential

Front 115

Define REPOLARIZATION?

Back 115

The movement of the transmembrane potential away from a positive value and towardthe resting potential

Front 116

Define HYPERPOLARIZATION?

Back 116

The movement of the transmembrane potential away from the norma resing potential and farther from 0mV.
(-70mV to -90mV)

Front 117

Define THRESHOLD?

Back 117

The transmembrane potential at which an action potential begins

Front 118

What does teh ALL OR NONE PRINCIPLES state?

Back 118

All stimuli that bring the membrane to threshold generate identical action potentials, in other words, the properties of the action potential are independdent of the relative strength of the depolarizaing stimulus, so long as the stimulus exceeds the threshold.

A given stimulus either triggers a typical action potential, or it does not produced one at all.

Front 119

Before an action potential can begin, what needs to happen?

Back 119

Depolarized to its threshold by local currents

Front 120

Define LOCAL CURRENTS?

Back 120

Movement of positive charges parallel to the inner and outer surfaces of a membrane

Front 121

At threshold, what happens to gates, ions, and plasma membrane?

Back 121

Sodium gate opens

Influxes of sodium inside of the cells

Plasma membrane becomes more positvely charged and resulting in larger depolarization.

Front 122

At what voltage will sodium channel before inactive?

Back 122

+30mV

Front 123

As sodium channels closes, what opens up?

Back 123

potassium channels

Front 124

As potassium channels are diffusing out of the cell due to an excess of positive charge in the cell, what is going to happen next?

Back 124

The sudden loss of positive charged the nshifts the transmembrane potential back toward resting levels and REPOLARIZATION begins

Front 125

Define REFACTORY PERIOD?

Back 125

From the time an action potential begins until the normal resting potentials has stablized, the membrane will not respond normally to additional depolarizing stimuli

Front 126

Define ABSOLUTE REFACTORY PERIOD?

Back 126

From the moment voltage gated sodium channels open at threshold until sodium channel inactivation ends

Front 127

Define RELATIVE REFRACTORY PERIOD?

Back 127

Begins when the sodium channels regain their normal resting conditions and continues until the transmembrane potential stablizes at resting levels.

Front 128

During which fractory period can another action potential take place?

Back 128

Relative refractory period

Front 129

If another action potential does take place because it is sufficiently depolarized, it requires a larger than normal stimulus, why?

Back 129

local current must deliver enough sodium to counteract the exist of positively charged potassium

Membrane is hyperpolarized

Front 130

What is CONTINUOUS PROPAGATION?

Back 130

Action potential begins at an inital segment and is relayed from one location to another in a series of steps?

Front 131

Yes or No: Distance is a factor in CONTINUOUS PROPAGATION?

Back 131

False: because action potential is being relayed from one location to another

Front 132

True or False: Action potenial moves forward but not backward?

Back 132

True

Front 133

Between CONTINUOUS and SALTATORY PROPAGATION, which one carries impulses more rapidly?

Back 133

SALTATORY

Front 134

Saltatory propagation carry impules to where

Continuous propagation carry impulses along what?

Back 134

Carries nerve impulses


Carry along unmyelinated axons

Front 135

What are the advantage of using saltatory propagation over continous propagation?

Back 135

More rapidly because it skips the internodes

Uses less energy

Few sodium ion is pumped

Front 136

What are two factors that will greatly increase the propagation speed of action potential?

Back 136

Diameter of axon

Presence of myelin

Front 137

Identify the 3 types of axons?

Back 137

Type A fibers
Type B fibers
Type C fibers

Front 138

Between the 3 types of axon, which one is the larges?

Back 138

Type A fibers

Front 139

Between the 3 types of axon, which one are unmyelinated?

Back 139

Type C fibers

Front 140

Between the 3 types of axon, which one has the smallest diameter?

Back 140

Type C fibers

Front 141

Between the 3 types of axon, which one are myelinated?

Back 141

Type A fibers
Type B fibers

Front 142

Between the 3 types of axon, which one carry sensory information about position, balance, and delicate touch from the skin surface to CNS?

Back 142

Type A fibers

Front 143

Between the 3 types of axon, which one has motor neurson that control skeletal muslce?

Back 143

Type A fibers

Front 144

Between the 3 types of axon, which one carry information to the CNS about temperature, pain, and general touch, and carry instructions to smooth, cardic muscles, glands, and peripheral effectors?

Back 144

Type B fibers
Type C fibers

Front 145

Mary Ainsworth

Back 145

Observe attachment relationships between a caregiver and child.

Front 146

True or False: Synapses can either be electrical or chemical?

Back 146

True

Electrical: direct physical contact between the cells

Chemical: use of neurotransmitter

Front 147

What is interlocked at the gap junction of electrical synapses?

Back 147

Presynaptic and postsynaptic membranes

Front 148

Differentiated between EXCITATORY AND INHIBITATORY NEUROTRANSMITTER?

Back 148

Excitatory neurotransmitters: cause depolarization and promote the generation of action potentials

Inhibitatory neurotransmitter: cause hyperpolarization and suppress the generation of action potential

Front 149

What kind neurotransmitter is ACETYLCHOLINE?

Back 149

BOTH, EXCITATORY AND INHIBITATORY

Front 150

True or False: The effect of a neurotransmitter on the postsynaptic membrane depends on the properties of the receptor, not on the nature of neurotransmitter?

Back 150

True

Front 151

What kind of synatpic is Acetylcholine?

Back 151

CHOLINERGIC

Front 152

Read pages 413 to 416 very helpful!!

Back 152

Read pages 413 to 416 very helpful!!

Front 153

What is NOREPINEPHRINE?

Back 153

Norepinephrine is a neurotransmitter that is widely distrubed in the brain and in poritons of the ANS

Front 154

Synapses that releases norepinephrine is called what?

Back 154

Adrengic synapses

Front 155

What kind of effect will norepinphrine have on the cell?

Back 155

Excitatory and depolarizes

Front 156

Is DOPAMINE, an excitatory or inhibitatory?

Back 156

Both

Front 157

What is SEROTONIN?

Back 157

Serotonin relates to a person's attention and emotional states and chronic depression

Front 158

What is Gamma aminobutyric acids (GABA)?

Back 158

Inhibitatory effect

Reduces anxiety

Front 159

What are NEUROMODULATORS?

Back 159

Alter the rate of neurotransmitter release by the presynaptic neuron or change the postsynaptic cell's response to neurotransmitter