Philosophy 103 Exam 1

Front 1

What role do moral intuitions play in philosophical ethics?

Back 1

1. ethics start with moral intuitions

2. they are a good starting point but are not above revision

3. some uncontroversial ones are murder is wrong, happiness is good, humans have basic rights

Front 2

Why are ethics normative and not descriptive? How does this distinguish ethics from science?

Back 2

1. normative tells us what should be the case

2. descriptive tells us what is the case

3. science cannot answer our ethical questions

Front 3

What is an argument?

Back 3

1. any chain of thought in which premises are offered in support of a particular conclusion

2. the best have premises that guarantee the conclusion

3. has two components: premises (assumed to be true) and Conclusion (derived from the premises)

Front 4

What are two ways to criticize an argument?

Back 4

1. Show that the premises are false

2. Show that the inference doesn't work (the premises, even if true, don't entail the conclusion)

Front 5

Define the terms true, valid, and sound in regards to an argument

Back 5

1. True: only applicable to individual statements

2. Valid: when the premises would (if true) necessitate the truth of the conclusion, BUT an argument with false premises can still be valid

3. Sound: all the premises are true and it is valid

Front 6

Define hedonism as Epicurus understood it

Back 6

1. pleasure is the only good; pain is the only bad

2. a good live = maximize pleasure and minimize pain

3. pleasure is absence of pain in the body and of trouble in the soul (sober reasoning --> cause and effect of every action)

4. all human experience depends on our capacity for sensation (minimize our indulgence in sensual pleasures)

Front 7

Empiricism in hedonism

Back 7

1. we need to sense something in order to believe in it

2. we sense goodness and call it pleasure

3. we sense evilness and call it pain

Front 8

What is the relation between pleasure and pain?

Back 8

1. acknowledgement of the lack of each

2. pain = the absence of pleasure

3. pleasure = the absence of pain

Front 9

Does Epicurus think we should seek any pleasure available to us? Why or why not?

Back 9

1. no because we need to be aware of future consequences

Front 10

What is Epicurus's analysis of desire?

Back 10

1. to desire X is to believe that X will bring some pleasure we don't have

2. desire involves a belief (will cause pleasure) and a pain (lack or pleasure currently)

Front 11

What are Epicurus's three types of desires?

Back 11

1. Necessary and Natural Desires (food, water, sleep, shelter, psychological tranquility, friends)

2. Merely natural desires (favorite food/drinks, sex, comfy bed, physical thrills)

3. Groundless desires (fame, power, high social status, immortality)

Front 12

When are desires irrational according to Hedonism?

Back 12

When they are groundless, not attainable, or will cause too much stress to obtain it and keep it

Front 13

What is Epicurus's analysis of fear?

Back 13

When fearing X . . .

1. believe that X is bad

2. believe that X might happen to me or cause me harm

3. feel psychological unease (pain) at the prospect of X happening

Front 14

When is it irrational to fear something according to Hedonism?

Back 14

1. when all or some of the previous beliefs mentioned in the last slide are proven to be false

2. when the fear won't cause pain

Front 15

Why does Epicurus think that it is irrational to fear death?

Back 15

1. don't feel pain during death (cessation of sensation)

2. irrational to fear no pain

Front 16

What is the distinction between instrumental goods and intrinsic goods?

Back 16

1. instrumental = something that we believe will be useful as a means to some future good; things that are valuable because of the good that they bring about

2. Intrinsic = something that is good in itself, not because it leads to something else; its presence all by itself makes us better off

Front 17

Why is it impossible that there be only instrumental goods?

Back 17

1.Because an instrumental good is only good because of the intrinsic goods that it brings about

Front 18

According to hedonists, what is the only intrinsic good?

Back 18

1. happiness

Front 19

What is the distinction between physical pleasure and attitudinal pleasure?

Back 19

1. Physical pleasure is a feeling

2. Attitudinal pleasure is enjoyment (which is intellectual and doesn't necessarily feel like anything)

3. Happiness is attitude of contentment

4. Contemporary hedonists made this distinction

5. Epicurus thought that all pleasures are of the same kind

Front 20

What does it mean to say that Hedonism is consistent with pluralism?

Back 20

1. PLURALISM - many different acceptable paths

2. there are many different paths to happiness in hedonism

Front 21

In what way does hedonism fit with our intuitions about what constitutes a good life?

Back 21

1. fits with our intuition that happiness always improves a life and sadness/misery always worsens a life

Front 22

Explain Nozick's "experience machine" thought experiment

Back 22

1. you are in a coma in which you experience the best life possible but it is only imaginary

Front 23

What is the thought experiment thought to show?

Back 23

1. if the experience of happiness is all that matter, then these false experiences are just as good as the real thing

2. But if our intuitions tell us that these false experiences are not as good as the real deal, then hedonism is missing something important

Front 24

Why is it significant that happiness is no more than a subjective state or mood of experience?

Back 24

1. I don't know

Front 25

Explain the argument from evil pleasures as an objection to hedonism

Back 25

1. if hedonism is true, then equally happy lives are equally appealing.

2. but equally happy lives are not always equally appealing

3. therefore hedonism is false

4. this argument suggests that hedonism is missing MORAL GOODNESS as an essential component of the good life

Front 26

Explain the argument from autonomy as an objection to hedonism

Back 26

1. If hedonism is true, autonomy contributes to a good life only insofar as it makes us happy

2. But autonomy is often necessary for a good life, even though it sometimes leads to unhappiness

3. therefore hedonism is false

4. This argument indicates that part of what hedonism is missing is AUTONOMY as an essential component of the good life

Front 27

Explain the argument from life's trajectory as an objection to hedonism

Back 27

1. if hedonism is true, then all that matters in the overall quantity of happiness

2. the trajectory or narrative of one's life makes a difference in how good the life is (independently of how happy the life is)

3. therefore hedonism is false

4. this argument indicates that part of what hedonism is missing is a GOOD NARRATIVE STRUCTURE as an essential component of the good life

Front 28

Explain the argument from good grief as an objection to hedonism

Back 28

1. if hedonism is true, then one should prevent the feeling of grief whenever possible

2. but one should not prevent the feeling of grief whenever possible

3. therefore hedonism is false

4. This argument indicates that hedonism is missing that the good life will involve APPROPRIATE EMOTIONAL RESPONSES (even when those responses lead to unhappiness)

Front 29

When Heathwood says that he wants us to focus on the good life in terms of benefit, what notions of the good life is he excluding?

Back 29

1. moral virtue, excellence, and meaningfulness

2. benefit = what will benefit us no matter what

Front 30

What is the difference between objectivist theories of the good life and subjectivist theories of the good life?

Back 30

1. objectivism - there are certain necessary things for a good life (e.g. happiness)

2. subjectivism - a things' benefits depend on us wanting it (e.g. friends only bring me happiness if I want them)

Front 31

Are the theories previously mentioned objectivist or subjectivist?

Back 31

1. objectivist

2. Desire satisfaction model is subjectivist

Front 32

Desire Satisfaction Model

Back 32

1. something is beneficial to me IFF I desire it

2. the degree of which something benefits = degree of which something is wanted

3. life is good if most of my desires are satisfied most of the time

Front 33

What is the relationship between hedonism and the desire satisfaction model?

Back 33

1. hedonism aims at happiness

2. the desire satisfaction model aims at what we want (happiness is the result = happiness is the satisfaction that thing are as we desire them; happiness is the byproduct)

Front 34

Actual desires and Idealistic desires

Back 34

1. actual desires - what we want right now; comes from imperfect minds; often irrational and emotional

2. ideal desires - what we would want if we were completely rational and informed

Front 35

Does Heathwood think that we should understand the desire satisfaction model in terms of actual desires or ideal desires?

Back 35

1. actual desires because appealing to ideal desires presupposes an objective standard of what makes desires the right desires

Front 36

Necessary Goods Model

Back 36

Many things are necessary for a good life (autonomy, morality, happiness)

Front 37

What were the three different ways in which the claim that "morality depends on religion" can be explained?

Back 37

1. religion is necessary as an INCENTIVE towards moral behavior (e.g. God rewards the good and punishes the wicked) PSYCHOLOGY

2. moral laws are CREATED by God. METAPHYSICAL claim (where do laws of morality start; fundamental study)

3. KNOWLEDGE of laws depends on divine revelation. EPISTEMOLOGY claim (study of knowledge)

Front 38

Why might some people think that religion is necessary as an incentive towards morality?

Back 38

1. without the desire for divine reward and the fear of divine punishment, humans would not have ant reason to be moral

Front 39

What is the argument from nice atheists and what is it supposed to show?

Back 39

1. if religion were the only incentive towards morality, then we could never convince atheists to act morally

2. but atheists chose to act morally all the time

3. therefore there must be other incentives towards morality than religion

4. religion is not necessary as an incentive towards morality

Front 40

What is the argument from real moral motivation, and what is it supposed to show?

Back 40

1. if expectation of divine reward and punishment were our only reason for moral behavior, then we would not be acting morally for the right reason

2. but we often do act morally for the right reason

3. therefore our expectation of divine reward and punishment is not our only reason for moral behavior

4. religion is not necessary as an incentive towards morality

Front 41

What is the divine command theory and why do some people believe it?

Back 41

1. Moral laws are real

2. God created everything that is real

3. therefore God created moral laws

4. also referred to as voluntarism

5. some people believe it because I don't know why

Front 42

What is Euthyprho's Dilemma?

Back 42

1. an action is morally good IFF God commands it (add more to this)

Front 43

What are the two options for Euthyphro's dilemma and what are the implications is truthful?

Back 43

1. an action is morally good because God commands it

2. God commands an action because it is morally good

3. One's implication is that there was nothing wrong with rape, murder, etc. before God commanded it, therefore making God's choice arbitrary, therefore making God capricious (this makes divine command theory false because DCT would have to say that this is true)

4. Two's implication is that God's role with respect to morality is not to create it, but to report it op

Front 44

What is Hobbes's account of human nature

Back 44

1. Equality (of strength and ability)

2. Reason (rational; is the most essential to humanity)

3. Right to life and self-preservation (told by reason)

4. Absolute, unrestricted freedom (told by reason)

Front 45

How does Hobbes characterize the state of nature?

Back 45

(What humans would be like without society)

1. Humans have no moral obligations to each other

2. Our only natural obligation is our own self-preservation

3. War of all against all

4. continual fear; danger of violent death; solitary, poor; nasty; brutish; short

Front 46

What natural rights do humans have according to Hobbes?

Back 46

1. right to life and self-preservation

Front 47

Why does Hobbes think that humans have a moral obligation to seek peace?

Back 47

1. peace is more conducive to my own survival

2. NOT because it helps the common good, or because it is intrinsically good

3. peace is desirable because it is good for me

Front 48

What are some of the moral laws that Hobbes thinks follow from the obligation to seek and maintain peace?

Back 48

1. Keep promises and be honest

2. Show gratitude when someone is generous

3. Don't excessively punish someone

4. Don't be anti-social

5. Don't be arrogant

6. Don't hoard public resources (e.g. water)

7. Don't be violent

**These laws are not laws because they are morally good or intrinsically right. They are laws because they are necessary for peace**

Front 49

Define Natural Law Theory

Back 49

1. figure out what human nature is

2. infer that an action is good insofar as it is in accordance with human nature

3. morality is grounded in human nature

4. TWO BIG CHALLENGES - there is a lot of controversy about what is human nature (or if it even exists); the inference from how humans are to what they should do is highly suspect because it jumps from descriptive to normative (naturalistic fallacy)

Front 50

In what sense is Hobbes's theory a form of natural law theory?

Back 50

1. he figured out what human nature was and then inferred an action which would be good for humans to follow

Front 51

In what sense is Hobbes's theory a form of egoism?

Back 51

1. the only natural moral law is to act in your own self-interest

Front 52

What is secondary goodness? Give an example

Back 52

1. when one kind of thing is good for (in relation to) some other kind of thing

2. Example: Cows as food sources; wood as building material; plants as medicine

Front 53

What is natural goodness?

Back 53

1. when something is good for a member of that species as a member of that species

2. explained by Aristolelian categoricals

Front 54

What is an Aristotelian Categorical?

Back 54

1. assert descriptive generalizations about species

2. statement about entire category or group

3. EXAMPLE - zebras have stripes; cats have fur; plants produce seeds

Front 55

What is a Teleological Aristotelian Categorical?

Back 55

1. can describe the purpose or function of some trait

2. EXAMPLE - Zebras have stripes (in order to avoid predators); Cats have fur (in order to stay warm)

Front 56

How does Foot use Teleological Aristotelian Categorical to explain her theory of natural goodness?

Back 56

1. T.A.C. leads to evaluations (e.g. Zebras without stripes are defective)

2. Some T.A.C. entail evaluative claims about moral goodness or moral defectiveness

Front 57

In what sense in the nature purpose of humans different than the natural purpose of animals according to Foot?

Back 57

1. Non-humans' functions are to stay alive and reproduce

2. The function of human life is much more than merely staying alive and reproducing

Front 58

In what sense is a moral defect analogous to a natural defect on Foot's account?

Back 58

1. Our natural habitat is society

2. People who lack virtues are morally defective

Front 59

What is the difference between psychological egoism and ethical egoism?

Back 59

1. Psychological egoism - the only thing that motivates human behavior is self-interest

2. Ethical Egoism - the only moral obligation is to pursue self-interest

3. Psychological egoism is a descriptive theory while ethical egoism is a normative theory

Front 60

What does psychological egoism entail regarding the possibility of altruism?

Back 60

1. altruism (act to promote someone else's well-being which causes you to sacrifice) is impossible

2. no action is ever altruistic because an action is always done to better yourself

Front 61

Why would psychological egoism be a threat to traditional conceptions of morality?

Back 61

1. If psychological egoism is true, then altruism is impossible

2. If altruism is impossible, then we can never be obligated to act altruistically (because we are never expected to do the impossible)

3. is morality is real, then we are obligated to act altruistically sometimes

4. therefore, if psychological egoism is true, then morality is not real

Front 62

What is the argument from strongest desires?

Back 62

1. Whenever you do something, you are motivated by your strongest desire

2. It is always in your self-interest to have your strongest desire satisfied

3. therefore, if you are motivated by your strongest desire, you are motivated by self-interest

4. therefore, whenever you do something, you are motivated by self-interest

Front 63

What are two objections to the argument from strongest desires?

Back 63

1. The inference from 2 to 3 is not valid (just because self-interest is a consequence of desire satisfaction, it does not mean that self-interest is the motivation)

2. Premise 2 is question-begging (whether what motivates us are always self-interested is exactly the theory under consideration, so it can't be assumed as a premise)

Front 64

What is the argument from guilty conscience? What is it supposed to show?

Back 64

1. When people seem to act altruistically, they are motivated by their desire to not feel guilty

2. It is in one's self-interest to not feel guilty

3. It is supposed to show that altruistic acts only appear on the outside, but are not real

4. Truth: guilt only makes sense if altruism exists (against psychological egoism)

Front 65

Does Ethical Egoism require/presuppose that psychological egoism is true?

Back 65

1. No, because altruism could be possible (but is immoral)

Front 66

How does the prima facie argument against ethical egoism appeal to moral intuitions? Describe it first, then answer the question.

Back 66

1. it can sometimes be in my best interest to murder, cheat, lie, and steal

2. Therefore, ethical egoism entails that sometimes murder, cheating, lying, and stealing are good

3. Any ethical theory that entails that sometimes those things are good is obviously false

4. therefore ethical egoism is obviously false

5. moral intuitions automatically reject ethical egoism because of common sense

Front 67

How might the ethical egoist reply to the prima facie argument?

Back 67

1. Deny premise 1 and say that living virtuously is necessary for a good life (the wicked are secretly miserable, despite appearances to the contrary)

2. Bite the bullet, deny premise 3, and reject common sense ideas about morality

Front 68

What is the argument from self-reliance and why does it fail?

Back 68

1. Since everyone does better when everyone minds their own business and focuses only on their own needs, it follows that we should only act in our own self-interest

2. This is false (we often do very poorly without the help of others)

3. The Ethical Egoist isn't allowed to consider that is good for everyone as a whole

Front 69

What is the argument from libertarianism and why is it false?

Back 69

1. Obligations to others only arise from promises or infringements of rights (so by default, I have no obligations to others)

2. Ethical egoists can't admit that we ever have obligations to each other

Front 70

How is ethical egoism incompatible with human rights?

Back 70

1. Because it is

Front 71

What is the argument from the equivalence of human value, and what is it supposed to show?

Back 71

1. If ethical egoism is true, then my own interests have more value than anyone else's

2. but there is nothing intrinsically more valuable about my interests over everyone else's

3. therefore, ethical egoism is false

4. Supposed to show that everyone's interests are equally valuable.