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114 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Personality: Allport (1937) |
The dynamic organisation within the individual of those psychosocial systems that determine his unique adjustments to his environment.
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Behaviour Traits |
Personality measured at the level of behaviour. |
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What is usually the cause of abnormal behaviours? |
Usually an interaction between genetic and environmental factors. |
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What are the main forms of therapy? |
•Psychodynamic and Humanistic Therapy • Behavioural Therapy • Cognitive Behavioural Therapy |
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What are the main classification systems? |
• DSM-IV • DSM 5 • ICD-10 |
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DSM-IV |
• Uses axes • May underestimate environmental influences |
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DSM 5 |
• Major revisions • No axes - just symptoms • Allows psychologists/psychiatrists to treat actual symptoms • Includes extreme personality traits |
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ICD-10 |
• Try to spot patterns of symptoms and allocate name of disorder to pattern • May miss link to personal (environment) therefore no responsibility for behaviour |
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NICE |
National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence - Independent organisation providing guidance on promoting good health, preventing and treating ill health. |
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What methods are used to treat abnormal behaviour? |
• Biological Treatment • Electro-convulsive Therapy |
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Biological Treatment |
• Diseased Centered Model: Makes brain 'normal' by reversing underlying abnormality • Drug Centered Model: Modify functioning of nervous system, produce altered state. |
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Electro-convulsive Therapy |
• Electrodes on head and pass electrical current across the brain to stimulate convulsions. • Can cause amnesia and death risk. |
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Drugs |
• Antidepressant: SSRI's, Tricyclic, MAOI • Antipsychotic: Neuroleptics, Tranquilizers • Mood Stabilizers: Lithium, Anticonvulsants, Antipsychotics • Anxiolytics: Benzodiazepines, Buspirone, SSRI's • Stimulants: Ritalin, Amphetamine, Atomoxetine, |
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Galen (Greek Physician): 4 Humours |
• Melancholic: Depressed - to much black bile • Sanguine: Optimistic - blood • Choleric: Irritable - too much yellow bile • Phlegmatic: Calm - Phlegm |
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Allport (1920) |
Study: Used interviews and questionnaires Students plus 3 of his associates Used averages and leading questions • Extraversion: Mental images, thoughts, problems expressed in behaviour. • Introversion: Dwellsin the realm of imagination but not always a misfit. • Sociality: Individual as a unit of society - considerations purely of self or interest in the welfare of others Believed deeper pervasive tendencies underlay superficial outward behaviour patterns - thought neurological tendencies underlay these tendencies. |
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Cattell |
Study: Used questionnaires - correlation and factor analysis Works out which behaviours are related by using correlation Used lie scale No retrospective questions Negatively worded questions 16 Source Traits: Outgoing - Reserved Emotionally stable - Unstable Enthusiastic - Pessimistic Suspicious - Trusting Insecure - Confident Relaxed - Tense |
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5 Surface Traits |
Exvia - Invia: Extraversion - Introversion Anxiety: Neuroticism Radicalism: Aggressive - Independent Tendermindedness: Sensitivity - Emotionality Superego: Conscientiousness - Conformity |
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OCEAN |
Openness: Conventional - Original Conscientiousness: Careless - Careful Extraversion: Retiring - Sociable Agreeableness: Selfish - Selfless Neuroticism: Calm - Worrying |
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Eysenick's 3 Personality Dimensions |
Extraversion - Introversion (E) • High scores (extravert): sociable, craves excitement, impulsive, sensation seeking • Low scores (introvert): quiet, introspective, reserved, distant Neurotic - Stable (N) • High scores: anxious, moody, over emotional • Extreme high scores: psychological problems • Low scores: calm, controlled, unworried Psychoticism (P) • Solitary, insensitive, reckless • Extreme high scores: psychological problems eg. psychosis, deviant behaviour, antisocial personality disorder |
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Extraversion |
• Associated with levels of cognitive arousal • Physical basis: Reticular Activating System (RAS) • Located in central core of the brain-stem, maintain optimum level or alertness |
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Extraversion: Reaction to External Events |
Extravert Excitation: Builds up slowly, relatively weak Inhibition: Builds up quickly, relatively strong, dissipates slowly Introvert Excitation: Builds up quickly, relatively strong Exhibition: Builds up slowly, relatively weak, dissipates quickly |
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Extraversion: Brain Function |
Extravert: Low level of excitation, chronically under aroused by sensory input = increase arousal Introvert: High level of excitation, chronically over-aroused by sensory input = reduce arousal |
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Neuroticism |
• Associated with levels of emotional arousal • Physical basis of neuroticism in Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) - fight or flight • Sympathetic nervous system reaction to stressor |
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Neuroticism: Reaction to External Events |
Heart rate: Increase, prepares for action Blood pressure: Increase, prepares for action Saliva: Suppressed, mouth dry Pupils: Dilate, aids vision Digestion: Slows, no hunger Bladder muscles: Relax, temp loss of bladder Liver: Release glucose, increased energy Emotion: Heightened, extreme emotional response |
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Neuroticism: Physiology and Personality |
Inherited Physiology • Physiological differences • Personality trait differences • Differences in behaviour • Extreme consequence Psychological Problems • Over active nervous system • Levels of neuroticism • Some people will learn fears more easily than other • Neurosis, mental health, phobias |
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Eysenck's Physiological Theory of Personality |
Extreme scores on any trait may result in predisposition to psychological disorders or extreme behaviours. Position on personality space predicts types of mental health issue. |
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Eysenck: Phobia |
High on Introversion and Neuroticism Low score for (E) good at learning associations + high score for (N) = anxious, over react to arousing stimuli in environment |
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Eysenck: Psychological Disorders |
High on Introversion and Neuroticism OCD = Learned behaviour High on Extraversion and Neuroticism Dissociative Disorders = strong inhibition |
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Genetic Similarity in Family |
• Monozygotic (MZ) twins: 100% • Siblings: 50% • Parent and child: 50% • Parents: random |
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Twin Studies |
• Compare MZ and DZ twins: genetic influence • Compare MZ twins raised together with MZ twins raised apart = environmental influences |
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Adoption Studies |
• Related children (siblings) raised in different families = genetic influence • Unrelated children raised in same family = environmental influence |
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Study Variance in Personality Traits |
Variance in personality between individuals (V) = genetic influences + environmental influences (shared and unshared) v = h^2 + c^2 + u^2 Variance = heritability + common enviroment + unique environment |
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Zuckerman (1991) |
• Extraversion: High sensitivity to reinforcement. High score = active, social, optimistic • Neuroticism: High sensitivity to punishment. High score = anxious, fearful • Psychoticism: Low sensitivity to punishment, high levels of arousal. High score = do not learn association between behaviour and punishment. High optimum level of arousal, extreme sensation seeking behaviour Personality is an interaction between environment and genetics - separating the two is impossible. |
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Weaknesses of Adoption Studies |
• Small sample sizes • MZ and adopted children often raised in similar homes • Adoption agency matches children to adoptive parents • Twins often taken by relatives = similar environment and genes |
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Weaknesses of Twin Studies |
• Small sample sizes, especially for twins raised apart • Cannot assume environment same for MZ and DZ twins • MZ similar in appearance, dressed and treated alike • MZ spend more time together |
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Preconceptions |
See the behaviour we expect to see. Positive = Halo effect Negative = Discrimination |
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Personality vs Situation |
Situation predicts behaviour • Extreme setting • Novel setting • Formal interactions • Little/no control over behavioural response • Few socially desirable options Personality traits predict behaviour • Routine situation • Familiar setting • Relaxed situation Free to choose behavioural response Several socially desirable behavioural options |
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Walter Mischel |
Situation has a massive effect on behaviour so determining personality traits from behaviour is impossible. Behaviour is determined by interaction of the way people respond to us, extreme situations and expectations that shape perceptions of people/situation. • Competences: Skills and abilities differ between individuals • Encoding strategies and Personal constructs: Cognition and perception differences Expectancies: Different experiences of consequences of particular types of behaviour Subjective values: Reinforces differ from individuals - seek outcomes we value first Self-regulatory systems and plans: Plan how we reach goals, monitor process, use self regulation by rewarding/punishing themselves |
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Albert Bandura |
Behaviour, cognition and environment interact and shapepersonality. Consequences of behaviour +Individual's belief regarding the consequences = Personality • Expectancy: Beliefthat a specific consequence will follow a specific behaviour• Observational Learning: Children can learn by observing others'behaviour without performing it themselves • Self-efficacy: Ourexperience of success in specific situations |
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Systematic Desensitization |
Replace negative emotionalresponse to feared object or situation with a pleasant response. Useconditioning techniques to change associations between stimulus and emotionalresponse. |
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Aversion Therapy |
Stop people carrying out unwanted behaviour by associating with negative consequences. |
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Behaviour Modification |
Using operant condition techniques to reinforce wanted behaviour, reduced unwanted behaviour. |
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Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT) |
Change maladaptive thoughts, beliefs and perceptions. Behaviour only changes if underlying cognitive processes change. eg. Panic attacks = Trigger of attack -> change perceptions about environmental trigger -> change underlying beliefs. |
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Psychodynamic Approach |
Personality due to unconscious motives and desires. Personality developed during first 5 years then fixed. |
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The libido |
Psychosexual energy present at birth - constant amount changed but not created or destroyed. At birth, energy (libido) forms the id, later the ego and superego. |
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Id |
Motivation for all behaviour is pursuit of pleasure, avoidance of pain. |
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Ego |
The Neutral ground |
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Superego |
Mainly unconscious moral components |
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Defence Mechanisms |
• Repression • Displacement • Denial • Rationalisation • Reaction Formation • Sublimation • Identification |
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Repression |
Main defence mechanism. Child internalises society's values -> basic urges under control -> state of equilibrium. Urges too strong = neurotic symptoms develop |
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Displacement |
Choose substitute for expression of feelings |
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Denial |
Don't accept distressing aspect of reality |
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Rationalisation |
Justify actions to keep self-esteem |
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Reaction Formation |
Behave opposite to unconscious feelings |
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Sublimation |
Find substitute activity for urges |
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Identification |
Incorporate aspects of another person into self |
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Neurosis |
Urges that were not repressed properly |
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Issues with Psychotherapy |
• Child abuse would have occurred in those days • Therapy not objective • Hypnotism can introduce false memories |
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Principles of Humanistic Approach |
The experiencing person is of primary interest Understanding the individual's perception of self-worth is central to understanding personality Topics for investigation: human choice, creativity, self-actualisation Behaviour isn't controlled by basic drives, growth and self actualisation essential for healthy humans Meaningfulness must precede objectivity in selection of research problems The importance of the problems to be investigated must guide research, not the scientific methods available Ultimate value placed on dignity of individual People are basically good, studying them degrades their dignity, they must be full partners with the psychologist in exploring personality |
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Abraham Maslow |
Humans subject to two motivation forces: • To fulfil basic biological needs - ensuring survival • To realise one's full potential hierchy of needs -> satisfying needs = self actualisation |
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Pyramid of Self Actualisation |
1. Self Actualisation Needs: Truth, justice, wisdom, meaning 2. Esteem Needs: Self respect, achievement, attention, recognition 3. Belonging Needs: Friendship, belonging, giving/receiving love 4. Safety Needs: Safety, security, no threat of physical/emotional harm 5. Physiological Needs: Oxygen, water, food, sleep |
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Self Actualisers |
• Perceive reality efficiently, tolerate uncertainty • Accept themselves and others for what they are • Spontaneous in thought and action • Problem centred, not self-centred • Possess a good sense of humour • Able to look at like objectively • Highly creative • Resistance to enculturation, though not purposely unconvetional • Concerned for the welfare of mankind • Deep appreciation of basic life experiences • Establish a few, deep, satisfying relationships • Strong moral and ethical standards |
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Carl Rogers |
Humans have tendency to move in direction of growth, maturity and positive change. Motivating force = the need to actualise to achieve the state of self-actualisation We need positive regard from others and feel positive regard for ourselves |
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Incongruence |
Mismatch between self image and actions. Very uncomfortable psychologically. Maintain consistency with defence mechanisms. |
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Dream analysis |
Conscious = Manifest content (symbols) Unconcious = Latent content (urges) |
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Transference |
How the client relates to the therapist gives insight into negative emotional attitudes in past relationships |
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Types of Therapy |
• Humanistic/Existential Therapy • Humanistic Therapy • Behaviour Therapy • Cognitive Therapy • Cognitive-Behaviour Therapy |
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Humanistic/Existential Therapy |
• Person centered approach • Third Force in Psychotherapy - reaction against the dominance of psychoanalysis and behaviourism. • Understand individual personal meaning |
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Humanistic Therapy |
• Therapist supplies a safe and accepting relationship • Uses positive regard, empathy and genuineness • Raises self confidence -> accept themselves |
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Behaviour Therapy |
• Focuses on maladaptive behaviours • Gradual exposure to feared object/situation • Was critised for ignoring beliefs, past experiences |
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Cognitive Therapy |
• Distress sustained by maladaptive beliefs • Can start in early life • Help develop realistic/positive beliefs |
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Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy (CBT) |
• Combines both cognitive and behaviour • Testing and changing problem behaviours • Using cognitive techniques to alter the underlying beliefs |
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Methods used in Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy |
Educational Literature: Help manage symptoms Socratic Dialogue: Challenge unhelpful beliefs |
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Effectiveness of Therapy |
• No control group • Can't randomise trials • Can't compare effectiveness of one therapy to another • Clients need long term treatments |
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Effectiveness of Humanistic Therapy |
• Relationship between client and therapist is the basis of the therapy • Assumes we can heal ourselves providing we are honest to our feelings - over optimistic? • Is the warmth and compassion of the therapist always honest? |
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Effectiveness of Psychodynamic Therapy |
• Use real relationships with the client to explore issues • Early days, lead to abusive of power, introduction of false memories • Therapists still powerful - neutral therefore cold and uncaring? |
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Mental Disorders |
• Psychosis • Neurosis • Mood Disorders |
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Schizophrenia: Positive Symptoms |
• Thought disorder: Disorganised, irrational thinking • Hallucinations: False perceptions - usually auditory voices • Delusions: False beliefs |
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Schizophrenia: Negative Symptoms |
• Flattened emotional response • Poverty of speech (alogia) • Lack of initiative or persistence (avolition) • Inability to experience pleasure (anhedonia) • Social withdrawal |
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Types of Schizophrenia |
• Catatonic • Paranoid • Disorganised • Undifferentiated |
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Catatonic Schizophrenia |
Motor disturbances, bizarre postures |
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Paranoid Schizophrenia |
Delusions of persecution, grandeur, control |
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Disorganised Schizophrenia |
Disturbances of thougts, odd speech, inappropriate emotions |
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Undifferentiated Schizophrenia |
Symptoms but do not fit into a category |
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DSM-IV Diagnosis for Schizophrenia |
Two or more symptom for 1 month period |
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DSM 5 Diagnosis for Schizophrenia |
Symptoms must be present for 6 months and include at least one month of active symptoms • Minor symptoms: Schizotypy |
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Causes of Schizophrenia |
Neurochemical: Cocaine and amphetamine cause symptoms whilst anti-pschotic drugs reduce them. Dopamine levels may be responsible for some symptoms Neurological: Brain differences may be responsible (damage) Prefrontal Cortex: Frontal lobe dysfunction - area associate with high level problem solving and social interaction Neurodevelopmental impairment: Problems during prenatal development Environmental: Parent has S, more likely to develop psychological problems |
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Obsessive Compulsive Disorder |
Obsessive: Intrusive, repetitive thoughts or images that lead to anxiety Compulsions: The overwhelming need to perform behaviours. Realise they are irrational but cannot stop |
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OCD Diagnosis |
The presence of obsession, compulsions or both. • Recurrent or persistent thoughts, urges or images that are intrusive and causes anxiety and stress. Sufferer tries, to ignore, suppress or neutralise thoughts by performing other action. • Time consuming (1hour) |
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Body Dysmorphic Disorder |
Involves preoccupation with a perceived physical defect in a normal appearing person or excessive concern over a slight physical defect that is accompanied by repetitive behaviours |
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Muscle Dysphoria |
The belief that the body is too small or not muscular enough |
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BDD Diagnosis |
• Preoccupation with one or more perceived defects or flaws in physical appearance that are not observable by others • At some point, repetitive behaviours have been performed • Causes distress or impairment in social and important areas of functioning |
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Neurosis |
High levels of anxiety. Aware there is a problem. Rigid use of defence mechanisms. Avoid stressful situations. Tendency for imaginary illnesses |
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5 Most Common Neurosis Disorders |
• General Anxiety Disorder • Panic Disorder • Phobic Disorder • OCD • Post-traumatic Stress Disorder |
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Generalised Anxiety Disorder |
Restlessness Tires Easily Irritability Difficulty Concentrating Muscle tension Sleep problems |
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Panic Disorder |
Shortness of breath Racing heartbeat Dizziness Cognitive problems |
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Anticipatory Anxiety |
Fear of having a panic attack. Severely disrupts normal functioning. |
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Phobic Disorder |
Fear. Causes -> Seligman: Preparedness hypothesis. Evolutionary Graham Davey: Disgust hypothesis |
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Disgust Sensitivity |
Protective food aversion response -> linked to evolution |
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9 Disgust Domains |
Food Body products Sexual behaviour Animals Poor hygiene Moral offences Death/corpses Violations of external body Interpersonal contamination |
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Somatisation Disorder |
Physical symptoms but no physical cause. • Gastrointestinal symptoms • Pain symptoms • Cardiopulmonary symptoms • Pseudo-neurological symptoms • Sexual and reproductive symptoms |
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Conversion Disorder |
Physical neurological type complaints with no neurological basis • Blindness • Deafness • Paralysis |
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Dissociative Disorder |
• Psychogenic Fugue (flight): Amnesia following traumatic events • Dissociative Identity Disorder: Present one or more personalities |
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Bipolar Disorder |
Alternating periods of mania and depression |
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Mania |
Elation, extreme self confidence but prone to outbursts of aggression. Hyperactivity, restlessness. Rapid speech. Alternate with periods of normality and depression |
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Depression |
Severe sadness and guilt with no environmental trigger. Feelings of worthlessness. Desire to withdraw from social interaction. Sleeplessness, lack of appetite and sexual desire. |
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Cluster A |
Odd and eccentric behaviour, difficulties forming relationships • Paranoid PD: Suspicious • Schizoid PD: Socially withdrawn • Schizotypal PD: Unusual perceptions, beliefs |
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Cluster B |
Attention seeking, dramatic, emotional, erratic • Antisocial PD: aggression, disregard for others, impulsive, no guilt or shame • Borderline PD: Fear of abandonment, mood fluctuations, self harm • Historic PD: Attention seeking, dramatic, emotional, erratic • Narcisstic PD: Pretentious, self-centred, fantasies of power |
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Cluster C |
High levels of anxiety and fear • Avoidant PD: Social inhibition, avoidance, low self-esteem • Dependent PD: Dependent, submissive, indecisive • OCD: Perfectionist, focus on detail |
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Identity |
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Self-direction |
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Empathy |
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Intimacy |
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DSM 5 Trait Domains |
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