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92 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
What is hypertrophy?
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an increase in SIZE of individual cells resulting in a tissue mass
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Give an example of hypertrophy
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enlarged muscle mass due to exercise
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What causes hypertrophy?
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excessive hormonal stimulation, additional work by the muscle
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What is hyperplasia?
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an increase in NUMBER of cells, resulting in a tissue mass
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What causes hyperplasia?
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a compensatory mechanism to meet increases demands, or a hormonal imbalance
*mark increased risk of cancer |
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What is atrophy?
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A decrease in SIZE of cells, resulting in reduced tissue mass.
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What are some causes of atrophy?
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malnutrition, hormonal stimulation, aging
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Give an example of atrophy
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shrinkage of skeletal muscle that occurs when a limb is immobilized in a cast for several weeks
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What is metaplasia?
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When one mature cell type is replaced by a different mature cell type.
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What causes metaplasia
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a deficit of vitamin A, as adaptive mechanism that provides for more resistant tissue
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Give an example of metaplasia?
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A smoker's lung changing from normal ciliated columnar cells to the most resilient stratified squamous
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What is dysplasia?
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tissue in which cells vary in size and shape, large nuclei are frequently present and the rate of mitosis is increased
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What causes dysplasia?
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chronic irritation or infection, or it may be a precancerous change
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Name a widely used test used to screen for dysplasia
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Pap smear
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What is anaplasia?
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cells that are undifferentiated and have variable nuclei and cell structure, and numerous mitotic figures
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What is anaplasia most often associated with
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malignancy and is the basis for grading a tumor
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Tumors are also referred to as ______
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neoplasms of "new growth"
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Benign tumors are only dangerous when found in what structure of the body?
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the brain
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What is apoptosis?
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programmed cell death in which cells self-destruct, digesting themselves enzymatically
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The most common cause of injurty is ischemia. What is ischemia, and what does it do?
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deficit of oxygen in the cells. the deficit interferes with cellular metabolism.
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What is hypoxia?
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reduced oxygen in the tissues
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What structures of the body are most harmed when hypoxia occurs?
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brain, heart, kidney
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What effect does reduced oxygen in tissues (hypoxia) have on the body?
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interferes with ATP production in the cell leading to a loss of sodium pump, thus increasing sodium ions inside of the cell. This leads to swelling and eventually rupturing of the cell membrane
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How does radiation exposure damage cells?
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it interferes with the blood supply or by directly altering their chemical constituents, creating toxic materials in the cells or by changing the DNA
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Which type of necrosis occurs when brain tissue dies or in certain bacterial infections in which a cavity or ulcer develops?
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Liquefaction necrosis
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What is liquefaction necrosis?
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the liquefaction of dead cells under the influence of certain enzymes
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What is coagulative necrosis?
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occurs when cell proteins are altered or denatured
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Coagulative necrosis is usually associated with what disorder?
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mycoardial infarction (heart attack)
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What is caseous necrosis?
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a form of coagulation necrosis in which thick, yellowish, cheesy substance form?
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Caseous necrosis is usually associated with what disorder
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TB
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Define infarction
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applied to an area of dead cells resulting from lack of oxygen
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What is gangrene?
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an area of necrotic tissue that has been invaded by bacteria
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Brain cell death occurs in ____ minutes while heart muscle death can survive for as long as _______ minutes.
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brain cells: 4-5 minutes
heart muscle cell: 30 minutes |
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Somatic cell death occurs when ________ occurs.
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brain cell death occurs
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There are two major types of defense mechanism. Name them.
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specific and non-specific
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What is the first line of defense in the inflammation response? Is it specific or non-specific?
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protection by a mechanical barrier such as a mucous membrane of the skin
It is nonspecific |
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What is the second line of defense in the inflammation response? specific or non-specific?
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phagocytosis-a process by which neutrophils and macrophages engulf and destroy cell debris, bacteria, and foreign matter.
nonspecific |
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Name the two "vulture cells"
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neutrophils and macrophages
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What are interferons?
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nonspecific agents that protect uninfected cells against viruses
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The arterial end of the capillary utilizes ____ pressure, while the venous end utilizes _____ pressure
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hydrostatic, osmotic
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Source and major action of histamines
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mast cell granules
make up the "vascular response"- immediate vasodilation, and increased permeability to form exudate |
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What is the chemical response?
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chemotaxis
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Which chem. mediator makes up the later response of vasodilation and increased permeability, and chemotaxis? What is its source?
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leukotrienes, arachdonic acid
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What inflammatory reaction causes swelling or edema?
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shifting of protein and fluid into the interstitial space
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What causes pain in the inflammatory response?
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increase pressure of fluid on the nerves
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What are pyrogens? Name a pryogen
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fever producers
interleukin-1 |
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What is meant by "shift to the left"?
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an increase in immature neutrophils
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What may be elevated in the blood in the presence of severe inflammation and necrosis?
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cell enzymes and isoenzymes (more specific forms)
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The c-reactive protein in a diagnostic test indicates ___
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acute inflammation and necrosis within 24-48 hours
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Extensive necrosis may lead to ____
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ulcers
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List several characteristics of chronic inflammation in comparison to acute inflammation
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more lymphocytes, macrophages, and fibroblasts
-more tissue destruction -granuloma forms |
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Name the actions and adverse effects of Aspirin (ASA)
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anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antipyretic
allergy, delays blood clotting, nausea, stomach ulcers and bleeding |
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Name the actions and effects of acetaminophen
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analgesic and antipyretic (DOES NOT diminish the inflammatory response)
kidney and liver damage in high doses |
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Name the actions and adverse effects of NSAIDs
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anti-inflammatory, analgesic, anti-pyretic
allergy, delays blood clotting, nausea, stomach ulcers and bleesing |
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Name the actions and adverse effects of glucorticoids
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anti-inflammatory, decreased immune response
increased risk of infection, blood pressure and edema, osteoporosis and skeletal muscle wasting |
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What is the major action of fibroblasts?
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produce collage for strength and repair, as well as macrophages which produce cytokines which act to stimulate epithelial cell proliferation and migration
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What is a contracture?
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deformity of a joint
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A patient has a burn. It is red in color, painful, but it heals without scar tissue. What type of burn is it?
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partial-thickness, or first degree burn
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A patient has a burn. It is red, blistered and heals by regeneration. What type of burn is it?
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deep partial thickness burn (second degree burn)
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A patient has a burn. All layers of the skin are destroyed and there is damaged tissue (eschar). Skin grafts are evident. What type of burn is it?
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Full-thickness, (third or fourth degree burn)
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What happens to your system in the presence of carbon monoxide?
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the CO binds with hemoglobin, taking the place of needed oxygen
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A serious infection in the body poses the risk of ______
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septic shock
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When does hypermetabolism occur and what is needed to sustain it?
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during the healing period after a burn. Increased dietary intake of carbs and protein.
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Where do all cells originate?
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bone marrow
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Antigen molecules are coded by a group of genes inherited from parents called___
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major histocompatability complex (MHC) located on chromosome 6
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What is the role of MHC?
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it activates and regulates the immune response as well as intercellular communications
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Macrophages develop from ______
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monocytes
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What is the primary cell in the immune response?
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leukocyte
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T-lymphocytes arise from_____
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stem cells
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What is the special type of immunity utilized by T-lymphocytes? Explain.
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cell-mediated immunity
T-lymphocytes with protein receptors on the cell surface recognize antigens on the surface of target calls and destroy them |
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What is the name of the t-lymphocytes that facilitates immune response?
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helper CD4 positive T-cell
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Where are the memory T-cells located?
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lymph nodes
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HIV destroys which t-lymphocyte, thus crippling the entire immune system?
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helper CD4 cells
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What type of immunity do the B-lymphocytes utilize? Explain
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humoral immunity through the production of antibodies or immunoglobins.
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What is hypersensitivity
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allergies
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When does causative hypersensitivity occur?
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When exposure to an allergen for some reason develops an IgE anitbody from B lymphocytes
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What is anaphylaxis?
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a severe, life-threatening reaction due to exposure of an allergen
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What are some symptoms of anaphylactic shock?
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decreased blood pressure, severe hypoxia, penicillin, local anesthetic
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What are autoantibodies?
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antibodies formed aganist self-antigens
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The butterfly rash is associated with with disorder? How is the disorder caused?
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lupus
it is idiopathic |
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What type of virus is HIV?
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a retrovirus
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What is a doctor referring to when speaking of a a "window" of time?
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the delay before which antibodies to the virus appear in the blood (3-7 weeks)
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Tumors often secrete enzymes such as collagenase which help to ______
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break down protein or cells
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What does 'in situ' mean?
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refers to neoplastic cells in a noninvasive stage of cancer
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In regards to tumors, what does grading mean?
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is based on the degree of differentiation of the malignant cells
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List some warning signs of cancer
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unusual bleeding, unexplained weight loss, anemia or low hemoglobin, a sore that does not heal
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What are paraneoplastic syndromes?
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additional problems associated with certain tumors (bronchiogenic carcinoma)
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What is 'metastasis' in reference to tumors?
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the spread of cancerous cells to distant sites or lymphatic channels
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What is seeding?
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the spread of cancer cells in body fluids or along membranes, usually in body cavitites.
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"Staging" is also known as
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prognosis
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What is carcinogenesis?
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the process in which normal cells are transfered into cancer cells
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What is the most common form of skin cancer?
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basal cell carcinoma
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