Organismal Biology (1)

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Organismal Biology

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•4.3: Tissues, Organs, and Systems
•5: Green Plants- Basis Of all Life
•6: How We Live
•7: How Living Things Adjust to Their Environments

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•4.3: Tissues, Organs, and Systems
(p. 58-66)

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Animal Tissues

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-a tissue is a group of similar cells performing the same function.
-Histology: the study of tissues
-Tissues are classified as epithelial, muscle, nerve, connective and supporting, blood, and reproductive.

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Epithelial Tissue

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-consists of a continuous layer of cells covering the body surfaces and lining the cavities w/in the body.
-Found on the outer layer of skin; in the lining of the digestive tract, the respiratory system, and the blood vessels; and in the glands.
-may have one or more of teh following functions: protection, absorption, secretion, and sensation.
-may also differ in appearance, some being flat, some boxlike or cuboidal, and others tall and rectangular (columnar).

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Several Types of Epithelial Tissues

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1.) Epidermis of the Skin
2.) Flat (squamous) Epithelium
3.) Ciliated Eqithelium
4.) Columnar Epithelium
5.) Glandular Epithelium
6.) Sensory Epithelium

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Epidermis Of The Skin

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-protects from injury, bacteria, and from drying out.

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Flat (squamous) Epithelium

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-broad and flat, like tiles on a floor.
-form a protective membrane that lines the inside of the mouth (mucous membrane) and esophagus.
-have special cells that secrete mucus to lubricate the passages and to trap dust and bacteria.
-line the smallest blood vessels (capillaries), where they allow dissolved materials to pass through them (absorption).

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Ciliated Epithelium

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-cells lining the nasal cavities and the trachea (windpipe)
-have cilia that are constantly in motion, beating foreign particles upwards and outward.

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Columnar Epithelium

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-line the small intestines
-absorb digested food
-contain special cells called goblet cells, which secrete mucus, a sticky fluid that lubricates the interior of the intestine.

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Glandular Epithelium

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-Ex: complex glands of the digestive system (e.g., salivary glands), the endocrine glands, (which secrete hormones (e.g., thyroxin), and the tear glands are specialized to secrete special liquids used by the body.

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Sensory Epithelium

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-specialized to receive stimuli from the outside of the body
-ex: olfactory cells lining the inside of the nose (help us to smell), the cells of the retina (permit us to see).

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Muscle Tissue

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-has the ability to contract and produce movement.
-3 Types:
1.) Voluntary or Striated Muscles (Skeletal Muscle)
2.) Smooth Muscle
3.) Cardiac or Heart Muscle

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Voluntary or Striated Muscles (Skeletal Muscle) (1/3)

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-contract according to our will
-ex: arms and legs
-usually attached to the bones of the skeleton
-consist of fibrils (have a striped or striated appearance, w/ alternating dark and light bands)
•Fibrils
-consist of 2 types of of proteins, called actin and myosin. According to current hypothesis, contraction is produced by the sliding of thin filaments of acting b/w thick filaments of myosin. This results in skeletal movement.

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Smooth Muscle (2/3)

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-is involuntary
-found in the walls of the alimentary canal and the blood vessels.
-Peristalsis: food is moved along and churned in the stomach and intestines by the wavelike contractions and expansions of the smooth muscles in the walls of these organs.
-the relaxation of the muscles of the blood vessels in the face enlarges their diameter and increases the amount of blood they contain; such a sudden increased supply of blood in the skin results in blushing.

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Cardiac or Heart Muscle (3/3)

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-involuntary
-found only in the heart

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Nerve Tissue

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-are specialized for transmitting messages or impulses through the body.
-appear different from other cells in having branched projections that are in close contact w/ each other.
-a Nerve Cell (Neuron) has a cell body containing the nucleus and most of the cytoplasm of the cell.

•Neuron
-Extending out from the cell body are branched threads, called dendrites.
-Many neurons also have a very long extension, or axon, which may be up to several feet long, and is covered with a fatty myelin sheath. Bundles of axons make up a nerve.

•3 Types of Neurons:
-Sensory Neuron (Organs-Brain)
-Motor Neuron (Brain-Spinal Cord)
-Interneuron (connecting neuron b/w other neurons).

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Connective or Supportive Tissue

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-consists of several types of cells quite different from each other.
-function is either to support the body or to connect its parts.
-cells secrete a nonliving substance (matrix) around them.

•5 Different Kinds:
-Bone
-Cartilage
-White Fibrous Connective Tissue
-Yellow Elastic Connective Tissue
-Fat (adipose) Tissue

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Bone (1/5)

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-consists of cells separated from each other by nonliving intercellular deposits of calcium and phosphorus (secreted by the cells themselves).
-these cells are connected w/ each other by fine, rootlike projections of cytoplasm.
-Bone tissue makes up teh skeleton, which supports the body and protects vital organs such as the brain and lungs.

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Cartilage (2/5)

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-cells are contained in a nonliving matrix, which is smooth, firm, and flexible, but not as hard as bone.
-can be felt in the ears, nose, and windpipe.
-also occurs in the joints at the ends of bones, where it allows smooth action.
-when cartilage breaks down, Arthritis results, w/ pain and swelling at the joints.

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White Fibrous connective Tissue (3/5)

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-consists of a very tough matrix of white fibers containing the living cells.
-found in tendons, which connect muscles to bone, and ligaments, which connect bones together, forming joints, such as the knee and elbow.

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Yellow Elastic Connective Tissue (4/5)

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-contains fibers that stretch when necessary, and then return to their normal size.
-this tissue is also found in the bronchial tubes of the lungs and b/w the vertebrae of the backbone.
- "Hardening of the arteries" (arteriosclerosis) results when the elastic fibers lose their elasticity.

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Fat (adipose) Tissue (5/5)

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-cells store oil and fat
-located beneath the skin and around the heart and kidneys
-helps to retain body heat.

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Blood Tissue

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-cells are carried in a liquid called Plasma.
-Plasma is a straw-colored fluid consisting of water and dissolved proteins, salts, and nutrients, antibodies, hormones, and wastes.

•3 Kinds of Cells in Plasma:
-Red Blood Corpuscles
-White Blood Corpuscles
-Platelets

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Red Blood Corpuscles (1/3)

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-round disc cells that lose their nuclei after being manufactured in the marrow of the bones.
-contain hemoglobin, which unites freely w/ oxygen.
-function is to bring oxygen to all cells of the body.
-Blood appears red b/c of the great number of these red corpuscles in the plasma.

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White Blood Corpuscles (2/3)

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-ameba-like cells that move through the circulatory system and the body tissues.
-they engulf and destroy bacteria that may have entered the body.
-are also called Phagocytes.

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Plateletes (3/3)

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-very small groups of cells that play a role in blood clotting.

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Reproductive Tissue

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-Special tissues of the body that are set aside for the formation of the reproductive cells.
-Egg Cells (female cells are produced in the ovaries, and sperm cells (male cells) are formed in the testes.

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Organs

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-Tissues are grouped together to form organs
-For example, the stomach is an organ that contains epithelial tissue, covering its outer and inner surfaces; smooth muscle tissue, by which it carries on peristalsis; nerve tissue, which controls its muscular and glandular activitiy; connective tissue, which holds it together; and blood tissue, which supplies its cells w/ food and oxygen and takes away wastes.
-All of these tissues work together as the stomach performs its function of digestion.
-Similarly, other organs such as teh heart, kidney, and brain are also made of tissues working together.

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Systems

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•7 systems composed of groups of organs working together to perform their particular function:
-Circulatory System
-Respiratory System
-Excretory System
-Nervous System
-Reproductive System
-Skeletal System
-Muscular System

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Organism

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-In many-celled living things, cells are grouped together to form tissues; tissues work together to form organs; organs are organized into systems. All of the systems working together comprise an organism.
-An organism may also be one-celled, such as an ameba.

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See "Summary Of Animal Tissues" on (p. 61-62)

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Plant Tissues

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Outer Covering

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-The Epidermis is the outside layer of cells in a plant.
-It is composed of 3 things: Leaf, Stem, and Roots.

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Leaf

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-in a leaf the epidermis is waterproof, containing a waxy substance called cutin.
-It covers the upper and lower sides of the leaf. In it are numerous tiny openings, stomates, on either or both surfaces.
-Stomates permit the passage of oxygen and carbon dioxide in and out of the leaf, and the liberation of water.

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Stem

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-The epidermis of a stem has thickened outer cell walls.
-it prevents the loss of water, and protects the underlying tissues from injury.
-on woody stems, the outside layer consists of a bark.
-stems have opening called lenticels for the exchange of gases.

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Roots

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-the epidermis of root is soft and thin, permitting the absorption of water and minerals.
-root hairs occur as single-celled outgrowths of root epidermis. They absorb water and minerals and also help anchor the plant in the ground.

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Conducting Tissue

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-are special tissues located in ducts called Fibrovascular Bundles that conducts materials throughout the plant.
-the ducts start in the roots, and continue up the stem into the leaves.
-In the leaves, they branch out into the midrib and the veins. They are composed of two kinds of conducting tissue, xylem and phloem.

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Xylem

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-consists of long, thick-walled, dead woody cells.
-are specialized for conducting water up from roots to the stem and leaves.
-serve to support the plant

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Phloem

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-consists of thin-walled sieve tube cells that have no culeus and that are located close to the xylem ducts.
-attached to each sieve tube cell is a companion cell containing a nucleus, which helps direct its activities.
-the sieve tubes are arranged longitudinally, end to end, with tiny holes in their adjacent walls. These opening permit the passage of food from cell to cell.
-It is through the phloem tissue that manufactured food is transported from the leaves to other parts of the plant.
-in the stem of dicots, the Fibrovascular Bundles are arranged in the form of a concentric ring. In the stem of monocots, these bundles are scattered about.

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Growing Tissue

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-the growing tip of a stem contains actively dividing cells known as meristem cells.
-at the other end of the plant, th etips of roots are similar in having a growing region also composed of meristem cells.
-another part of the plant that consists of actively dividing cells is the cambium. This important growing region is found in the fibrovascular bundles, b/w the phlowm and the xylem.
-as cambium cells divide they form more cambium, as well as more xylem and phloem, enlarging the stem and causing the trunk of the tree to grow in diameter.
-Trees in the Temperate Zone show such growth only during the spring and summer of each year. A cross second of a tree shows the presence of Annual Rings, which are formed during these growing periods. Annual Rings consist of large cells of xylem, formed in the spring, and smaller, woody, cells in the summer. The age of a tree can be determined by counting these rings. They also give a clue as to the climate conditions that prevailed, with wide rings indicating favorabl

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Food-Making Tissue

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-B/w the upper and lower epidermis of a leaf, there are cells containing chloroplasts arranged in two regions, a PALISADE LAYER and a SPONGY LAYER.

•Palisade Layer
-are elongated and are arranged in column-like fashion under the upper epidermis.
-here, they receive sunlight and carry on their chief function, food-making or photosynthesis.

•The Spongy Layer
-is located below the palisade cells.
-these cells are more irregular, w/ large air spaces among them that are adjacent to the stomates.
-these cells are thus well suited for the exchange of gases w/ the surrounding atmosphere, and for the passage of Carbon Dioxide to the palisade layer above them.
-cells of the spongy layer have fewer chloroplasts and so are not as important form the viewpoint of photosynthesis as the palisade cells. The green cells of young stems also carry on Photosynthesis.

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Supporting Tissue

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Plants are generally strengthened and supported in 4 ways:

•Fibrovascular Bundles
-have woody xylem cells that give support to the stem.
-these long, pointed dead cells w/ greatly thickened walls make up a considerable proportion of the wood of trees.

•Groups of Living Cells w/ Greatly Thickened Walls
-lend support to various parts of a plant, as in the leaf, just above and below the midrib; similar cells occur in stems, next to the epidermis.

•Scattered Thick-Walled, Dead Cells in Stems
-located just outside of the Phloem
-help support the plant.

•Large, Thin-Walled Cells
-located b/w the midrib and the epidermis
-strengthen the leaf by their turgidity
-are stretched full of water and are quite rigid in teh same way that a hose full of water is rigid.
-when there is a loss of water from these cells, the leaf becomes softer and wilted.
-Similar groups of cells perform the same function of support by turgidity in succulent stems and in the young stems of wood plants.

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Storage Tissue

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•Pith
-large, thin-walled cells in stems that store food
-may be either located in teh center of the stem or scattered through the stem as rays of cells (Medullary Rays).
-also serve to conduct food and water w/in the stem.
-my become thickened and also serve to store food, as in the case of the sweet potato, carrot and radish.

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Reproductive Tissue

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•Male Nuclei (Sperm Nuclei)
-are formed in the Pollen Grans,
-produced by the stamens

•Female Nuclei (Egg Nuclei)
-are formed in the Ovules of flowers
-located w/in the ovary
-when pollination occurs, pollen is deposited on the stigma
-a pollen tube develops from each pollen grain, and grows down into an ovule, carrying the sperm nuclei win itself. The sperm and egg nuclei fuse (fertilization), and the ovule develops into a seed. Part of the seed contains the embryo of a new plant; stored food for the embryo occupies most of the remaining part of the seed.

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See Summary of Plant Tissues (p. 63-64)

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