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143 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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what type of sugar bonds are eventually converted to VFAs in a fermenter?
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beta-glycosidic bonds
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which type of fermenters cannot directly use dietary hexoses?
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cranial fermenters
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what percentage of absorbed nitrogen in ruminants is from microbes?
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50-80%
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what are the most important vitamins biosynthesized by microbes in the ruminants?
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B vitamins
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why is saliva important to the rumen?
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provides water, buffers the pH, and NPN such as urea to for the microbes
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what types of CHOs are digested by microbial enzymes in fermenters?
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cellulose, hemicellulose, pectin, mono/disaccarides, starch
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what are the most common VFAs of fermentation?
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acetate, butyrate, propionate
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which type of plant CHO cannot be fermented in the rumen?
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lignen
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which type of CHO can be converted to butyrate in the rumen
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cellulose
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what is the percentage of VFAs produced into acetate in a hay diet and what roles does it play in the body once absorbed?
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65% hay diet
roles: energy and fat synthesis |
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what is the percentage of VFAs produced into propionate in a hay diet and what roles does it play in the body once absorbed?
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20% in hay diet
roles: glucose, lactose (through gluconeogenesis) |
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what is the percentage of VFAs produced into butyrate in a hay diet and what roles does it play in the body once absorbed?
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15% in hay diet
roles: supports rumen mucosa and colonocytes |
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how do forage and grain respectively contribute to milk in ruminants?
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forage produces high acetate, which increase milk fat. Grain produces high propionate, which produces lactose and maximizes milk production.
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what are the nitrogen sources used by fermenting microbes to make protein?
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amino acids, peptides, urea (dietary and in saliva)
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how do microbes alter fatty acid chains in the rumen?
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- saturation of double bonds
- changes in location of double-bonds - changing cis- to trans- - synthesis of odd-chain fatty acids |
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what is the maximum amount of lipid that should be in a cranial fermenter's diet?
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5-7%
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what is the maximum amount of lipid that should be in a horse's diet?
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15%
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how do microbes contribute to the digestive tract of non-fermenters?
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- modulate intestinal transit and motility
- trap and detoxify ammonia - confer immunity to the host |
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what classes of GI microbes are present in the GIT?
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archaea < 10%
bacteria ~ 50% protists and fungi ~ 50% |
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why is regular analysis of hay more important than regular analysis of canned/bagged food?
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hay can vary in nutrient composition, even bale-to-bale, whereas prepared food is very reproducible
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what are characteristics of mature hay versus an early hay in composition and nutrient content?
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early is higher in overall nutritional value and especially leaves have more protein
mature hay has seed heads, stems, and is coarser. Early hay is leafier |
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what are three important characteristics when evaluating silage?
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1. particle length
2. ratio of grain to forage 3. maturity |
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what cuts of hay are the best?
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2nd and 3rd. They have a higher leaf:stem ratio and less seedheads. Also, they are not left on the pasture as long as 1st cut.
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why are blister beetles a problem and where are they found?
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they contain cantharidin, a neurtoxin to horses. As little as 25 beetles, when swallowed can kill a horse. They are present in aflafla hay after mid-summer
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if silage has a cooked or tobacco smell, what is most likely wrong with it?
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heat damage due to air leaks in the silo
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if silage has a rancid milk smell, what is most likely wrong with it?
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clostridial fermentation to butyric acid
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if silage has a vinegar smell, what is most likely wrong with it?
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low lactic acid, high acetic acid
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if silage has an alcohol smell, what is most likely wrong with it?
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fermentation by yeast
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what six things are measured/estimated using proximate analysis?
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1. dry matter content
2. crude protein (from total N) 3. ether extract (lipids and fats) 4. ash (mineral) 5. crude fiber 6. nitrogen-free extract |
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how do you convert nitrogen percentage to crude protein?
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multiply by 6.25
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what is NPN and why is it important in crude protein measurements.
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non-protein nitrogen. Artificially raises the crude protein
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what essential minerals are underestimated in ash residue?
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selenium and iodine
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how is crude fiber measured? What are its faults?
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- subject the feed to acid and then base. What is left over is considered crude fiber.
- estimates mainly cellulose and some lignin - procedure solubilizes some fiber - underestimates soluble fiber (pectins and gums) and some hemicellulose |
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what does NFE estimate and what are its faults?
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Nitrogen-free extract: estimates starches and sugars
- may contain indigestible carbs such as hemicellulose, lignin, pectin, and gums - NFE from grain is utilized by all species because it has low fiber content, whereas NFE form forages contains more fiber |
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what system is used to determine the cell wall contents of a feed?
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van Soest analysis
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what is the process of van Soest analysis
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1. feed mixed with neutral detergent.
- NDS (neutral detergent solubles) have protein, lipid, starch, sugars, organics, minerals, vitamins, and pectin - neutral detergent fiber (NDF) has cell wall components: hemicellulose, cellulose, and lignin 2. NDF is mixed with acid detergent - acid detergent soluble (ADS) contains hemicellulose - acid detergent fiber contains heat damaged protein, cellulose, and lignin |
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how does NDF change with plant maturity
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increases
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how does animal feed intake change with increasing NDF?
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decreases
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how does ADF change with plant maturity
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increases
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how does digestibility change with increasing ADF?
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decreases
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what are NDF and ADF good general indicators of in feed?
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NDF is a good indicator of "bulk" and thus feed intake
ADF is a good indicator of "digestibility" and thus energy intake |
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what can NIR spectroscopy measure in feed?
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- lipid
- protein - fiber - moisture - Ca - P - salt |
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what is the "Energy Balance Equation?"
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Energy In = Energy Out + Energy Stored
Energy has to be used or stored |
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what is positive energy balance?
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Energy In > Energy out
Weight gain |
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what is negative energy balance?
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Energy in < energy out
Weight loss |
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what is energy equilibrium?
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energy out = energy in
weight maintenance |
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what analytical method is used to measure energy content of a food/feed?
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bomb calorimetry
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what is the definition of a calorie?
what is a Calorie? |
calorie is the energy it takes to raise 1 gram of water by 1 degree Celsius
a Calorie is a "big calorie" = 1000 cal = 1 kcal |
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how many Joules are in one kcal?
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4.184 kJ per kcal
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Under what conditions is Basal Energy Requirement/Basal Metabolic Rate (BER/BMR) measured?
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- Post absorptive state
- State of muscular repose but not asleep - Thermoneutral environment |
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Under what conditions is Resting Energy Requirement (RER) measured?
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- Fed state
- Recovering - State of muscular repose but not asleep - Thermoneutral environment - RER = 70 x (BW in kg ^ 0.75) |
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What is Maintenance Energy Requirement and how is it roughly calculated?
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- Maintain body weight at moderate physical activity
- Usually 1.5 -2 times BER |
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what is direct calorimetry?
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directly measuring the actual heat given off by and animal and thus measures the energy expenditure
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what is indirect calorimetry?
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measures oxygen consumption and carbon dioxide production and estimates heat given off mathematically
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how many kcal are in 1 gram of fat, protein, and carbohydrates, as estimated by Atwater?
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Fat: 9 kcal/g
Protein: 4 kcal/g Carbs: 4 kcal/g |
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why does fat have a higher energy density than protein or CHO?
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because it has more C-H bonds, which can be converted to more energy than C-O bonds.
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What is gross energy and how is it utilized by the body?
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The amount of kcal of energy as determined by bomb calorimetry.
gross energy = Digestible energy + Fecal energy |
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which of the following have the greatest DE? The Least DE? The greatest GE? The least GE? The greatest ME? The least ME? The greatest NE? The least NE?
Alfalfa hay Barley grain Corn grain Soybean meal Timothy hay |
Greatest DE: Corn Grain
Least DE: Alfalfa Hay Greatest GE: Soybean meal Least GE: Alfalfa Hay Greatest ME: Corn Grain Least ME: Alfalfa hay Greatest NE: Corn grain Least NE: Timothy Hay |
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How is digestible energy (DE) used by the body?
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DE = ME + UE + GE
ME = metabolizable energy UE = energy lost in urine for N disposal GE = loss of energy from fermentation of DE in the GI tract |
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How is digestible energy (DE) used by the body?
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DE = NE + HE
DE = digestible energy NE = net energy (energy usable by the animal) HE = energy lost by heat of digestion |
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How is net energy (NE) used by the body?
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Gain (NEg) and/or Lactation (NEl):
a.Tissue growth b.Reproduction c.Stored in products d.Work and Maintenance (NEm): a.Basal metabolism b.Activity at maintenance c.Sustaining body temperature |
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How is NEm related to NEg in energy balance?
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NEm (net maintenance energy) is used until the body is at an energy balance. Then NEg (net gain energy) is used for gain.
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What is the equation to calculate total digestible nutrients (TDN) from a proximate analysis?
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TDN = dCP + dCF + dNFE + 2.25 EE
dCP = digestible Crude Protein dCF = digestible Crude Fiber dNFE = digestible Nitrogen Free Extract EE = ether extract |
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how is TDN converted to DE?
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1 g TDN = 4.4 kcals DE
TDN = total digestible nutrients DE = digestible energy |
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What terms are used to designate the energy concentration in feed for different species?
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DE (kcal/lb; kcal/kg): Horse feeds
ME (kcal/lb; kcal/kg): Dog, cat, swine, poultry feeds NE (kcal/lb; kcal/kg): Cattle (dairy, beef) feeds TDN (%, weight units): old system – Ruminant, swine, horse feeds |
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What terms are used for animal energy requirements for different species?
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Dogs, cats:
– Maintenance Energy Requirements (kcal/day) -MER – Basal Energy Requirements (kcal/d) -BER – Resting Energy Requirements (kcal/day) -RER Horses: – Digestible Energy (Mcal/d or Mcal/kg BW) -DE Food Animals: – TDN(lbs or kg/d or % of the diet) – Net Energy (Mcal/d or Mcal/lb) -NE |
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what is a forage?
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Leaves and stems of grasses, legumes, and cereals
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what is a grain?
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Seeds of cereals and oilseeds
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what are some examples of plant feed by-products?
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Cereal seed coats, oilseed meals, distiller grains, bakery products, food processing products, etc…
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how much fiber does a High Fiber feed contain?
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> 18% fiber
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What are the four basic stages of maturity of orchard grass?
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1. 6-7" High Cut; Pasture
2. 8-10" High Cut; Late Pasture 3. 10-12" High Cut; Early Hay 4. 12-14" High Cut: Mature Hay |
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what is the most important factor in forage quality?
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The stage of maturity when harvested
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what is a Cool Season grass and what are some examples?
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- grasses that grow best in the spring and fall
- Fescue, Bluegrass, Orchard grass, Timothy |
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what is a Warm Season grass and what are some examples?
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- grasses that grow best in the summer
- Bermuda, Bluestem, Teff |
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what is the best grass for managing obesity
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Teff grass
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What are some characteristics of Teff grass?
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- originates from ethiopia
- low in carbs and energy density. - May be good to manage obesity. - Tough to grow. - Have to reseed anually. - Not good for grazing |
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what are two examples of legumes and how do they differ from grasses in nutrition and harvesting
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- Alfalfa and Clover
- Higher protein content than grasses - Higher energy content - Higher Ca and P - less NSCs than cool season grasses (high levels of NSCs can cause laminitis) - have to be careful not to cut too short, if you lose the leaves, you lose quality |
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what are five advantages for ensiling corn?
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– High yields of high-energy feed per acre
– Palatable, consistent feed – Stored at time of harvest at ideal maturity of the plant – Rapid harvest – Low-cost storage |
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what is the ideal stage of corn maturity?
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1/2 - 3/4 milk line
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how does milk line in corn relate to moisture content?
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a milk like further down the kernel has more moisture
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why does a hay bale with too moisture pose a risk?
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- it may overheat and start on fire
- it may get moldy and become toxic |
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What are the five phases of the fermentation process in ensiling?
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1. Respiration: aerobic and anaerobic bacteria break down CHO and protein - O2 consumption, CO2+ heat production
2. Anaerobic fermentation: production of acetic acid by beneficial anaerobic bacteria (lowering pH to 5.0) 3. Anaerobic bacteriaproducing lactic acid: pH decreases (4.0) 4. Storage phase: once all microbial growth stopped due to low pH 5. Aerobic decomposition: on the any surface of the silo opened to the air (proper management should reduce these losses) |
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What micronutrient is toxic to sheep?
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copper
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Which six macrominerals are commonly supplemented into feed?
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Na, Cl, Ca, P, Mg, sometimes S
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Which seven microminerals are commonly supplemented into feed?
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Cu, Fe, I, Mn, Zn, Co, Se
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why is bone meal as a supplement a health concern?
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a lot of bone meal products contain heavy metals, where the cattle can pick up lead and mercury, etc.
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what are alkalinizing diets used to treat/manage?
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- renal failure
- Calcium oxalate urolithiasis |
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what are acidifying diets used to treat/manage?
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Struvite (triple phosphate) urolithiasis
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what is a common disease caused by choline deficiency?
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hepatic lipidosis
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What are the five major reasons to use medicated feed?
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1. Prevent disease
2. Enhance growth 3. Increase feed efficiency 4. Control of internal and external parasites 5. Control of insect pests |
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What are the four main reasons ionophores are added to feed?
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1. Shift of microorganisms in the rumen
2. Increased production of propionic acid in the rumen 3. Decrease protein degradation, increase postruminal, starch digestion, increase weight gain 4. They are coccidiostatics |
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what species should not be given ionophores in their feed?
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horses and camelids
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what probiotics are given to cranial fermenters, non-fermenters, and hindgut fermenters?
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cranial fermenters and non-fermenters: bacteria
hindgut fermenters: yeast |
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propylene glycol in the food is toxic to which animals?
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cats
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What are the four basic classifications of plant-based feedstuffs?
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1. High Mosture forages - pastures, green chop
2. Silages 3. Dry forage 4. Concentrates - energy concentrates and protein concentrates/proteinaceous by-products |
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what are the two basic groups of energy concentrates?
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1. carbonaceous - grains, roots and tubers, carbonaceous by-products
2. animal and vegetable fats |
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what are the two basic groups of proteinaceous concentrates?
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1. protein supplements of animal origin
2. plant protein concentrates |
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by definition, how much fiber is in a forage?
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> 80%
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how much fiber is in a concentrate?
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< 18%
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what type of concentrate has low to moderate protein?
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carbonaceous
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what type of concentrate has high protein?
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proteinaceous
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what are the two organizations whose nomenclature, definitions, standards, and regulations are used in the US for feed?
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NRC and AAFCO
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why don't you want to feed a cat only skeletal muscle?
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it is deficient in taurine
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is a meat by-product rendered or non-rendered?
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non-rendered
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what are five major reasons to feed concentrates?
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1. Provide energy - Readily available sugars, starches or fat
2. Increase energy density of the diet - Increased energy intake 3. Supplements to roughage-based diets - Compliment nutrient profile of forages 4. Improved productivity / performance - Growth, weight gain, reproduction, lactation, athletic performance 5. Better utilization of NPN in ruminants |
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comment on the nutrient, mineral, and vitamin content in carbonaceous concentrates
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- low-moderate protein, low fiber
- high NFE - low Ca, high P; unbalanced Ca:P ratio - fair in Vitamin E - high in thiamin and niacin |
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what are two basic processing methods for carbonaceous concentrates?
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–Cooked in dry or canned pet foods
–Cracked, rolled, steam-flaked for livestock and horses |
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why is yellow corn advantageous to white corn and why does this advantage not apply to cats?
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- high in carotene and xanthophylls
- high in VFA precursors - cats can't convert carotene to Vitamin A |
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if sorghum is harder to grow and yields less than corn, why is it used?
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- grown in areas where corn does not do well
- heat and drought resistant - tannins make it highly palatable |
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why are oats preferred to corn when feeding horses?
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- 2x less energy than corn because it has more fiber from the hull - laminitis
- very palatable |
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how does the nutrient content of barley compare to corn?
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higher protein, lower in energy
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comment on the nutrient content in proteinaceous concentrates
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- high in protein, low in fat
- high protein quality |
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from what is proteinaceous concentrate typically obtained?
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oilseed meal
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what essential amino acids are in soy that are lacking in corn?
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lysine and tryptophan
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why must soybeans be heated during processing?
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they contain trypsin inhibitors
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why is cottonseed meal only fed to ruminants?
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- low in Lysine, Ca, cartene
- Gossypol is toxic to non-ruminants, but is detoxified in the rumen |
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why is rapeseed not the most optimal proteinaceous concentrate?
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- bitter
- low in lysine - glucosinolates can cause goiter |
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why is peanut meal not the most optimal proteinaceous concentrate?
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- poor amino acid balance
- low in lysine and methionine - poorly digestible - risk of aflatoxins from mold |
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what is bran?
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outer coat of grain
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what is flour?
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finely ground meal from cereal grains
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what is gluten?
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starch and germ extract
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what are groats?
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hulless grains
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what is hominy?
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corn bran, germ, starchy portion
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what are hulls?
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outer covering of grain
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what are middlings?
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bran, germ, flour
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what are polishings?
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by-product of rice
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what are five major reasons to process feed?
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– Alter particle size
– Improve palatability, digestibility – Alter nutrient composition – Eliminate pathogens – Detoxify |
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what does BARF stand for, with regards to alternative diets?
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bones and raw food
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what are five methods for cold grain processing?
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1. Rollermill grinding
2. Hammermill grinding 3. Soaking 4. Ensiling 5. Acid preservation |
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what are six methods for hot grain processing?
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1. Steam rolling
2. Steam flaking 3. Pelleting 4. Popping 5. Spraying with molasses, fat, and other liquids 6. Extruding |
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Why is pelleting a good method for processing?
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- heat destroys some toxins
- custom size, hardness, shape - homogenizes to eliminate sorting by the animal - decreases dust (lower respiratory disease) |
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what is textured feed?
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a mixture of pellets and whole grains
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what are six methods for processing forage?
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1. old fashioned long hay handling
2. bailing 3. chopping and grinding 4. pelleting 5. cubing 6. chemical treatment |
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what computational feed formulations should you learn for this exam?
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1. algebraic
2. Pearson's square |
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does freezing destroy bacteria and parasites?
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parasites, yes; bacteria, no
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who is the current minority leader in the US House of Representatives?
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just kidding. who cares?
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what are the three basic principles of the Uniform State Feed Bill?
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–Don‟t cheat me! (Accurate labeling)
–Don‟t hurt me! (Adulteration) –Don‟t lie to me! (Advertising) |
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what must be included on the purpose statement on a food label?
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- Class of animals that the
feed was designed for - Can include weight ranges, sex or ages of animals that the feed was intended for |
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what is the caveat of putting the statement "The product meets the nutrient requirements for_____life stage established by an AAFCO-recognized nutrient profile" on a food label?
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does not have to been fed to the animal, just meets the guidelines
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what is the caveat of an AAFCO-recognized feeding protocol statement on a food label?
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Does not need to meet the minimum nutritional allowances. They just had to do the study on animals and pass certain tests.
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what two things must appear on medicated food labels with respect to that medication?
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- the name of the medication and dosage
- the purpose of the medication |
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what chemical in adipose tissue controls satiation?
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leptin
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how do the following physiologic states affect food intake:
- estrus - pregnancy - lactation - disease - growth |
- estrus: decrease
- pregnancy: increase mid-gestation; decrease late gestation - lactation: increase - disease: decrease - growth: increase |
