Neuroscience - Memory

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For information to return to mind after it is no longer present, it has to be put into

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mental code, or representation.

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The major forms of representations studied by psychologists

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sensory representations and verbal representations.

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People also store memory for actions as

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motoric representations.

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The standard model of memory views the mind as a computer, which

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stores, transforms and retrieves information processing.

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It includes three sequential memory stores or stages of memory.

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sensory register, STM and LTM.

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the split-second mental representation of a perceived stimulus that remains very briefly after that stimulus disappears.

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sensory register,

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visual sensory registration

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Iconic storage

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describes auditory sensory registration.

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echoic storage

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stores information for roughly 20 to 30 seconds, unless the information is maintained through rehearsal (repeating the information again and again).

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Short-term memory (STM)

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form of rehearsal, which merely maintains information in STM,

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maintenance rehearsal.

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thinking about and elaborating on the information’s meaning — tends to be superior for storing information in long-term memory.

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Elaborative rehearsal

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representations may last as long as a lifetime. Recovering information from LTM, or retrieval, brings it back into STM, or consciousness.

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long-term memory (LTM),

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assumes that information passes through a series of stages, one at a time and in order

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serial processing

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researchers now view memory as involving a set of

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modules that operate simultaneously (in parallel) rather than sequentially (one at a time).

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the temporary storage and processing of information that can be used to solve problems, respond to environmental demands or achieve goals.

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working memory,

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STM is now viewed as...

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working memory,

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According to one prominent model, control processes such as rehearsal, reasoning and making decisions about how to balance two tasks simultaneously are the work of

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a limited capacity central executive system;

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whereas storage involves at least two limited-capacity systems,

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a visual store (also called the visuospatial sketchpad) and a verbal store.

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Although they can be distinct, in everyday life STM and LTM work together, as

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frontal working memory networks provide a special form of activation to networks in the posterior parts of the cortex that^ represent current perceptions and information stored in LTM.

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grouping information into larger units than single words or digits. The roughly seven pieces of information stored in visual or auditory working memory can represent larger, more meaningful pieces of information.

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chunking

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Types of long-term memory can....

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be distinguished by the kind of knowledge stored and the way this knowledge is retrieved and expressed.

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refers to memory for facts and events and is subdivided into semantic or generic memory and episodic memory .

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Declarative memory

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general world knowledge or facts

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semantic or generic memory

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memories of particular events

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episodic memory

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refers to ‘how to’ knowledge of procedures or skills.

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Procedural memory

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Information can be retrieved either...

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explicitly or implicitly

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refers to conscious recollection, expressed through recall or recognition.

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Explicit memory

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(the spontaneous retrieval of material from LTM)

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recall

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(memory for whether something currently perceived has been previously encountered or learned)

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recognition

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expressed in behaviour rather than consciously retrieved.

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Implicit memory

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are central to the consolidation of explicit memories but do not appear to play an important role in either implicit memory or working memory.

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The hippocampus and adjacent regions of the cortex

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memory as it occurs in daily life — tends to be functional (focused on remembering information that is meaningful) and emotionally significant.

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Everyday memory

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memory for things that need to be done in the future.

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Prospective memory

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Among the factors that influence later accessibility of memory are ...

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the degree to which information is elaborated, reflected upon and processed in a meaningful way during encoding: the presence of retrieval cues the spacing of study sessions (with longer intervals between rehearsal sessions tending to be more effective);and the use of multiple and redundant representational modes to encode the information, which provides more cues for its retrieval.

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(level of processing)

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encoding

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(stimuli or thoughts that can be used to facilitate recollection);

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retrieval cues

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systematic strategies for remembering information, can also be useful for remembering, as can external memory aids such as notes.

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Mnemonic devices

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clusters of interconnected units of information called nodes.

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networks of association

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activating one node in a network triggers activation in closely related nodes.

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spreading activation theory

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Some information is organised in broad categories composed of narrower subcategories, which in turn consist of even more specific categories.

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hierarchically

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organised knowledge about a particular domain

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schemas

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memory is an active, reconstructive process that involves reactivation of both the initial representations of an event and general knowledge that helps fill in the gaps.

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schema theory

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Schemas facilitate memory..

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by organising information at both encoding and retrieval.

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Many schemas are shaped by...

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culture, from beliefs about foods that are appropriate to eat to beliefs about the meaning of life.

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Across cultures, people tend to remember ...

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what matters to them.

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discovered a forgetting curve that applies : the main kinds of declarative memory, in which considerable information is lost but forgetting then tapers off.

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Ebbinghaus

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Memory is a reconstructive process that mingles...

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representations of actual experiences with general knowledge.

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vivid memories of exciting or highly consequential events

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flashbulb memories.

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Misremembering is common in...

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flashbulb memories and eyewitness testimony

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Eyewitness testimony can be

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biased by even seemingly minor change in the way questions are asked.

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Three theories attempt to account for forgetting

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decay theory, interference of new and old information with retrieval of the other and motivated forgetting.

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explains forgetting as a result of a fading memory trace

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decay theory.

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forgetting for a reason, which leads to inhibition of retrieval

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motivated forgetting

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involves the inability to retain new memories.

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Anterograde amnesia

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involves losing memories from a period before the time that a person’s brain was damaged.

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retrograde amnesia

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Stores information in a sensory mode

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sensory representations.

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Store information in words.

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verbal representations.

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prior exposure to a stimulus (the prime) facilitates or inhibits the processing of new information.

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priming effects.

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The fact that ease of retrieval depends on the match between the way the new information is encoded and later retrieval.

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encoding specificity principle

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the superiority of memory for information rehearsed over longer intervals.

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spacing effect.

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A mnemonic strategy which uses visual imagery as a memory aid.

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method of loci.

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A strategy developed to help students remember information in textbooks, which include six steps: survey, question, read, recite, review and write.

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SQ4R method.

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The seven sins of memory:

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transience (fade), absent-mindedness (attention is elsewhere), misattribution (forgetting the source), suggestibility (implanted memory), bias (distortions in recollection), persistence (they keep coming back) and forgetting.

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Refers to the interference of previously stored memories with the retrieval of new information.

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proactive interference (calling romantic partner by an ex's name).

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new information interferes with retrieval of old information

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retroactive interference (difficulty recalling home numbers from past residences).