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239 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Wallerian degeneration
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Axon injury
Neuron degeneration dismally Aonsl reaction- cellular swelling, dispersal of nissl substance- proximally |
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Astrocyte marker
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GFAP
astrocytes maintain bbb, physical support, reactive gliosis in response to injury |
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Microglia
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Cns phagocytes, mesodermal origin
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Cells destroyed in Guillain Barre syndrome
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Schwann cells
Each one myelinates only 1 PNS axon Promotes axonal regeneration Inc conduction velocity via saltatory conduction htn nodes of ranvier with high conc of Na channels |
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Endoneurium
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Invests single nerve fiber layer
inflammatory infiltrate in gbs |
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Perineurium
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Permeabilit barrier
Surround a fascicles of nerve fibers Must be rejoined in microsurgery for limb reattach event |
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Meissners corpuscles
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Large myelinated fibers
Position sense, dynamic fine touch, adapt quickly |
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Pacinian corpuscles
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Large myelinated fibers
Vibration, pressure |
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Merkels disks
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Large myelinated fibers
In hair follicles Position sense, static touch, adapt slowly |
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Free nerve endings
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C slow unmyelinated fibers
Alpha delta fast myelinated fibers Pain and temperature |
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Locus ceruleus
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Stress and panic
Where NE is synthesized |
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Nucleus accumbens and septal nucleus
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Reward center, pleasure, addiction, fear
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Dopamine
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Syn in ventral tegmentum and substantia nigra pars compacta
Inc in schizophrenia,dec in Parkinson's and depression |
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5-HT
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Sn in raphe nucleus
Dec in anxiety and depression |
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ACh
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Syn in basal nucleus of Meynert
Dec in Alzheimer's and huntingtons, inc in rem sleep |
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GABA
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Syn in nucleus accumbens
Dec in anxiety, huntingtons |
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NE
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Syn in locus ceruleus
Inc in anxiety, dec in depression |
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Glucose and AA cross BBB
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slowly by carrier mediated transport
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Non polar/ lipd soluble substances cross BBB
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rapidly via diffusion
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A few specialized brain regions with fenestrated caps and no BBB
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allow mols in blood to affect brain
area postrema- vomiting after chemo OVLT- osmotic sensing allow neurosecretory prod to enter circ neurohypophysis- ADH release |
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Vasogenic edema
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infarction or neoplasm destroys endothelial cell tight junctions-- cerebral edema
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Inputs to hypothalamus
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OVLT- senses change in osmolarity
Area postrema- responds to emetics |
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Supraoptic nucleus makes
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ADH
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Paraventricular nucleus makes
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Oxytocin
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Lateral area of hypothalamus
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Hunger
inhib by leptin if zap it, shrink laterally |
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Ventromedial area of hypothalamus
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Satiety
stim by leptin if zap it, grow vental and medially |
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Anterior hypothalamus
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cooling, pArasympathetic
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Posterior hypothalamus
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heating, sympathetic
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Suprachiasmatic nucleus of hypothalamus
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circadian rhythm
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Hypothalamus wears TAN HATS
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thirst and water balance, adenohypophysis control, neurohypophysis release hormones from hypothalamus, hunger, autonomic regulation, temp regulation, sexual urges
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Thalamus
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major relay for all ascending sensory information EXCEPT olfaction
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VPM
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Face sensation and tast
Makeup on Face |
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LGN
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Lateral = Light
vision |
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MGN
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Medial=Music
hearing |
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VPL
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pain and temp, pressure, touch, vibration and proprioception
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Limbic system
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cingulate gyrus, hippocampus, fornix, mammillar bodies, septal nucleus
5 F's- feeding, fleeing, fighting, feeling and sex |
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Cerebellum input
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contralateral cortical input via middle cerebellar peduncle, ipsi proprioceptive input via inf cerebellar peduncle,
stim feedback to contra cortex to modulate movement input nn climbing and mossy fibers output nn purkinje to deep nuclei of cerebellum, output to cortex via sup cerebellar peduncle |
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Deep nuclei of cerebellum
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L to M
Dont Eat Greasy Foods Dentate, Emboliform, Globose, Fastigial Lat- voluntary movements of extremities Med- balance, truncal coordination, ataxia |
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What side do you fall to when you damage medial deep nuclei of cerebellum
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fall toward injured- ipsi- side
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Lewy bodies composed of
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alpha synuclein- intracellular inclusion
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Parkinson's disease
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degenerative dso of CNS ass with Lewy bodies and loss of dopaminergic neurons- depigmentation- of SNc
TRAP- resting tremor, cogwheel rigidity, akinesia, postural instability TRAPped in your own body |
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Hemiballismus
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sudden wild flailing of 1 arm or leg
caused by contralateral subthalamic nucleus lesion loss of inhib of thalamus through globus pallidus |
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Huntingtons disease
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AD CAG repeat dso
Caudate loses Ach and Gaba Atrophy of striatal nuclei- main inhibitors of movement neuronal death via NMDA-R binding and glutamate toxicity chorea, aggression, depression, dementia |
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Chorea
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sudden jerky purposeless movements
characteristic of basal ganglia lesion |
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Athetosis
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slow writhing movements, esp of fingers
characteristic of basal ganglia lesion |
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Myoclonus
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sudden brief muscle contraction
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Dystonia
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sustained involuntary muscle contractions
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Tx essential/postural tremor
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beta blockers
AD, familial, better with alcohol |
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Intention tremor
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ass with cerebellar dysfunction
slow zigzag motion when pointing towards target |
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Heschl's gyrus
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primary auditory cortex
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Kluver Bucy syndrome
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lesion in amygdala bilat
hyperorality, hypersexuality, disinhibited behavior associated with HSV 1 |
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Spatial neglect syndrome
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agnosia of the contralateral side of the world
lesion of right parietal lobe |
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Lesion of mammillary bodies
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Wernicke- confusion, ophthalmoplegia, ataxia
Korsakoff- memory loss, confabulation, personality changes |
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Hippocampus lesion
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anterograde amnesia, inability to make new memories
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PPRF lesion
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paramedian pontine reticular formation
eyes look AWAY from side of lesion |
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Frontal eye field lesion
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eyes look TOWARD lesion
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Central pontine myelinolysis
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from rapid correction of hyponatremia
results in acute paralysis, dysarthria, dysphagia, diplopia, LOC |
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Aphasia
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higher order inability to speak
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Dysarthria
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motor inability to speak
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Broca's area
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inferior frontal gyrus
aphasia- non fluent, intact comprehension |
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Wernicke's area
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superior temporal gyrus
aphasia- fluent, impaired comprehension |
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Global aphasia
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non fluent, impaired comprehension
both brocas and wernickes areas affected |
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Conduction aphasia
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fluent speech, intact comp, Can't repeat!
arcuate fasciculus impaired- connects broca and wernickes areas cant repeat no ifs ands or buts |
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Damage to watershed areas in brain perfusion in severe hypotension
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Upper leg/upper arm weakness, defects in higher order visual processing
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Therapeutic hyperventilation
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dec PCO2, helps dec intracranial pressure in cases of acute cerebral edema (stroke, trauma)
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Anterior circulation
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derived from internal carotid aa
ACA, MCA, lateral striate aa |
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Posterior circulation
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derived from subclavian aa
vertebral, basilar, AICA, PICA, PCA, ASA |
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Lateral striate artery stroke
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in striatum, internal capsule
contralateral hemiparesis/hemiplegia common location of lacunar infarcts secondary to unmanaged htn |
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Wallenberg's syndrome
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lateral medullary syndrome
PICA stroke dec pain temp sensation in limbs/face |
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PCA infarct
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contralateral hemianopsia with macular sparing
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PComm lesion
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aneurysm, CN III palsy- eye is down and out
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AComm lesion
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aneurysm, impingement on CNs, visual field defects
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PICA infarct
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hoaseness, dysphagia
lateral medullary syndrome |
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AICA infarct
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lateral pontine syndrome
facial droop means AICAs pooped |
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MCA infarct
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contra paralysis and loss of sensation in upper limb and face
hemineglect if lesion on nondominant usually right side |
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ACA infarct
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contra paralysis and loss of sensation on lower limb
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MC site of berry aneurysm
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AComm
occur at bifurcations rupture leads to hem stroke and SAH ass with ADPKD, ehlers danlos, marfans, advanced age, htn, smoking, being black |
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Charcot Bouchard microaneurysms
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ass with chronic htn
affects small vessels ex in basal ganglia, thalamus |
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Risk of what 2-3 days after SAH
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vasospasm due to blood breakdown- not visible on CT and rebleed- visible on CT
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Tx vasospasm following SAH with
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Nimodipine
dihydropyridine ca channel blocker |
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Intraparenchymal hemorrhage
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MC caused by systemic htn, also amyloid angiopathy, vasculitis, neoplasm
typically occurs in basal ganglia and internal capsule, but can be lobar |
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Bright areas on non contrast CT indicate
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hemorrhage
tPA would be contraindicated |
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Stroke imaging
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bright on diffusion weighted MRI in 3-30 min, remains bright for 10 days
dark on noncontrast CT in about 24 hrs |
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CSF made and reabsorbed
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made by choroid plexus
reabsorbed by venous sinus arachnoid granulations |
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Normal pressure hydrocephalus
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wet, wobbly and wacky
expansion of ventricles distorts fibers of corona radiata and leads to clinical triad of dementia, ataxia, and urinary incontinence reversible cause of dementia in elderly!!!! |
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Communicating hydrocephalus
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dec CSF absorption by arachnoid villi, lead to inc intracranial pressure, papilledema, herniation
ex arachnoid scarring post meningitis |
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Obstructive (noncommunicating) hydrocephalus
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structural blockage of CSF circ within ventricular system
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Vertebral disk herniation
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nucleus pulposus herniates through annulus fibrosus
usually occurs btn L5 and S1 |
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Dorsal column
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Ascending pressure vibration touch and proprioception synapses in upside nucleus cuneatus or gracilis in medulla, then decussates in medulla and ascends contra in medial lemniscus, synapse in vpl of thalamus, to sensory cortex
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Spinothalamic tract
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Ascending pain and temp sensation synapses in ipsi gray matter of sc, decussates at anterior white commissure, ascends contra to vpl of thalamus to sensory cortex
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Lateral corticospinal tract
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Descending voluntary movement of contra limb, umn in primary motor cortex, descends ipsi through internal capsule, decussates at caudal medulla- pyramidal decussation, descends contra, synapse ant horn of sc, Lmn leaves sc and synapses at nmj
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Poliomyelitis
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Caused by polio virus, fecal oral, destruction of ant horn of sc, Lmn destruction
Malaise, sore throat, mm weakness and atrophy, fasciculations, fibrillation, hypo reflexia CSF with lymphocytic pleochroism, slight inc in protein, Nml gluc |
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Werdnig Hoffman syndrome
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Infantile spinal muscular atrophy
AR, floppy baby, tongue fasciculations, degen of ant horns, Lmn involvement only |
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ALS
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Both Lmn and umn involvement, can be caused by fact in SOD1
Riluzole tx modestly lengthens survival by dec presynaptic glutamate release |
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Tubes dorsal is
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Degen of dorsal columns and roots due to tertiary syphilis, impaired proprioception and locomotor ataxia
Positive Romberg, absent deep tendon reflexes, argyll Robertson pupils- accommodate but do not react to light |
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Friedreichs ataxia
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AR GAA repeat dso in gene that encodes frataxin, mito impairment, staggering gait, falling, nystagmus, kyphosis looks, dysarthria, hammer toes, cause of death- hypertrophic cardiomyopathy
Frat brother- stumbling, staggering, falling |
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Brown Sequard syndrome
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Hemisection of spinal cord
Ipsi umn signs and dorsal column effects below lesion Contra spinothal effects below lesion Loss of all sensation and Lmn signs- flaccid paralysis- at level of lesion If lesion is above T1- horners syndrome |
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Syringomyelia
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Dmaages ant white commissure of spinothalamic tract- 2nd order neurons
Bilateral loss of pain and temp sensation- usually c8-t1 Seen with chiari I types 1 and 2 |
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Diaphragm and gallbladder pain referred to
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Right shoulder via phrenic nerve
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L1 dermatome
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IL
Inguinal ligament |
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L4 ligament
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Down on L4s
Includes kneecaps |
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S2,3,4
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Keep the penis off the floor
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Gallant reflex
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Stroking along one side of spine when newborn is face down causes lateral flexion of lower body toward stimulated side
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CNs that lie medically at brain stem
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3,6,12
Motor= Medial |
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Superior colliculi
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Conjugate vertical gaze center
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Inferior colliculi
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Auditory
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Parinaud syndrome
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Paralysis of conjugate vertical gaze due to sup colliculi lesion, ex pinealoma
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CN type mneumonic- sensory, motor, both
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Some Say Marry Money But My Brother Says Big Brains Matter Most
CN I - XII |
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CN nuclei
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Lateral- sensory- alar plate
Medial- motor- basal plate Midbrain 3 4 Pons 5-8 Medulla 9-12 |
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Divisions of CN V exit
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Owing to Standing Room Only
Superior orbital fissure- CN iii, iv, V1, vi Foramen rotundum- CN V2 Foramen ovale- CN V3 |
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How does mma exit skull
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Foramen spinosum
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Nucleus solitarius
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Visceral sensory info- taste, baroreceptors, gut distension
CN 7,9,10 |
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Nucleus aMbiguus
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Motor inn of pharynx, larynx, upper esophagus- swallowing, palate elevation
CN 9,10,11 |
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Dorsal motor nucleus
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Sends autonomic ps fibers to heart, lungs, upper GI
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What exits Foramen magnum
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Spinal roots of CN XI, brainstem, vertebral arteries
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What exits jugular Foramen
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Cn ix, x, XI, jugular vein
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Wha exits internal auditory meatus
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CN vii, viii
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Cavernous sinus syndrome
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Due to mass effect
Ophthalmoplegia, ophthalmic and maxillary sensory loss |
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Cerebellar hemisphere lesion
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fall toward side of lesion
laterally located- affect lateral limbs |
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CN XII lesion
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tongue deviates toward side of lesion due to weakened tongue muscles on affected side
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CN V lesion
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jaw deviates toward side of lesion
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CN X lesion
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uvula deviates away from side of lesion
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CN XI lesion
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head turned away from side of lesion
shoulder droop on side of lesion |
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Conductive hearing loss
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abnormal Rinne test
Weber localizes to affected ear |
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Sensorineural hearing loss
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normal Rinne test
Weber localizes to unaffected ear |
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UMN facial lesion
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contra paralysis of lower face
bc upper face receives bilat UMN inn |
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LMN facial lesion
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ipsi paralysis of upper and lower face
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Bell's palsy
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complete destruction of facial nuc or facial nerve proper
peripheral ipsi paralysis of upper and lower face, inability to close eye gradually recover in most cases seen in AIDS, Lyme disease, Herpes simplex, Sarcoidosis, Tumors, Diabetes ALexander graHam Bell with STD |
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3 muscles to close jaw
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Medial pterygoid, Masseter, teMporal
M's Munch |
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1 muscle to open jaw
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Lateral pterygoid
Lateral Lowers |
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Near vision
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ciliary muscle contracts, zonular fibers relax, lens relaxes, more convex
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Far vision
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ciliary muscle relaxes, lens flattens
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Cycloplegia
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paralysis of ciliary muscle
inability to accommodate |
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Presbyopia
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no near vision, happens in aging due to sclerosis and dec elasticity, lens shape changes
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Retinal artery occlusion
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acute painless monocular loss of vision, pale retina and cherry red macula- has own blood supply from choroid artery
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Closed narrow angle glaucoma
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obstruction of flow btn iris and lens, pressure buildup behing iris, VERY painful, dec vision, rock hard eye, frontal HA, ophthalmologic emergency, dont give epi!
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Superior oblique extraocular muscle
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abducts, intorts and depresses while adducts
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CN III damage
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eye down and out, ptosis, pupillary dilation, loss of accommodation
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CN IV damage
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eye drifts upward causing vertical diplopia, problem reading newspaper or going up stairs
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CN VI damage
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medially directed eye
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To test inferior oblique
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Have patient look UP
IOU |
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Path of pupillary dilation- myDriasis
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T1 preganglionic sympathetic-- superior cervical ganglion-- postganglionic sympathetic--- long ciliary nerve--- radial muscle aka pupillary dilator muscle
Sympathetic |
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Path of pupillary constriction
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CN III from EW nuc--- ciliary ganglion-- pupillary sphincter muscle aka circular muscle
Parasympathetic |
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Marcus Gunn pupil
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afferent pupillary defect ex due to damage to optic nerve or retinal detachement, REDUCED bilat pupillary constriction when light shone in affected eye
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CN III center
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output to ocular muscles, damaged by vasc dse due to dec diffusion to interior
sx ptosis, down and out gaze, non reactive pupils |
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CN III periphery
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parasympathetic output, damaged by compression, use pup light reflex in assessment- blown pupil
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Retinal detachment
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separation of neurosensory layer of retina from pigment epithelium, degen of photoreceptors leads to vision loss
secondary to trauma, diabetes |
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Dry ARMD
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degen of macula, causes loss of central vision- scotomas
slow, due to fat deposits, causes gradual dec in vision |
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Wet ARMD
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rapid, due to neovascularization
loss of central vision |
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Knock out optic chiasm
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bitemporal hemianopsia
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Knock out right optic tract
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Left homonymous hemianopsia
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Knock out right Meyer's loop- right temporal lesion, MCA
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Left upper quadrantic anopia
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Knock out right dorsal optic radiation- right parietal lobe, MCA
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Left lower quadrantic anopia
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Knock out right optic nerve
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Right anopia
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Knock out visual cortex- PCA
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Left hemianopia with macular sparing
because macula has bilateral projection to occiput |
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Knock out left macula
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Central scotoma- macular degeneration
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INO
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MLF syndrome
lesion in MLF- medial longitudinal fasciculus medial rectus palsy on attempted lateral gaze failure of med rectus to adduct eye nystagmus in abducting eye Associated with MS!!!! Convergence is normal |
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Left MCA stroke
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aphasia, right hemiparesis, hemianesthesia, hemianopia, deviation of eyes to left
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Right MCA stroke
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neglect, left hemiparesis, hemianesthesia, hemianopia, deviation of eyes to right
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PCA stroke
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contralat hemianopsia with macular sparing
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Vertebral/PICA stroke
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ataxic gait, falling to side of lesion, vertigo
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Basal ganglia intracerebral hemorrhage
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Most likely caused by htn!
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Grey white junction hemorrhage
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Metastasis!
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Cortical "lobar" hemorrhage
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elderly pt with Alzheimers
Cerebral amyloid angiopathy! |
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Phenytoin
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AED- antiepileptic drug
gingival hyperplasia, low blood counts, cerebellar degeneration |
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Valproic acid
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AED
weight gain, hair loss, low blood counts, dysfunction platelets |
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Carbamazepine
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AED
agranulocytosis, low sodium |
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Phenobarbital
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AED
dependence |
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Valproic acid
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inhibitor of p450 system
raise the level of other drugs all other AEDs are inducers |
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AEDs with sodium channel blockade
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phenytoin, carbamezapine, oxcarbazepine, lamotrigine
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AEDs with t-type ca channel blockade
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Ethosuximide, valproic acid
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AEDs GABAergic (GABA A agonists)
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benzos- clonazepam, diazepam, lorazepam
barbiturates- phenobarbital |
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AEDs inhibit glutamate receptors
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Lamotrigine, topiramate
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Risperidone
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dopamine blocking agent
anti psychotic |
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Dopamine blocking agents
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anti psychotics- risperidone, olanzapine, haloperidol
antiemetics- metoclopromide, prochlorperazine, perphenazine EPS se- parkinsonism rare- neuroleptic malignant syndrome |
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Craniopharyngeoma
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Fat teenagers who are depressed and eat too much, develop bitemporal hemianopsia
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Parinaud's syndrome
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lesion in midbrain tectum
impaired upgaze, convergence, lid retraction |
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Weber's syndrome
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ventral midbrain
ipsi CN III palsy, ptosis, dilated pupil contra hemiplegia/paresis from lower face down |
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Benedikt's syndrome
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dorsal midbrain
ipsi CN III palsy with ptosis, dilated pupil contra tremor, ataxia |
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Alzheimers dse genes
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Early onset- APP (21), presenilin 1 (14), presenilin 2 (1)
Late onset- ApoE4 (19) Apo E2 on 19 is PROTECTIVE |
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Lewy body dementia
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parkinsonism with dementia and hallucinations
alpha synuclein defect |
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Charcot's classic triad of MS
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SIN
Scanning speech Intention tremor, incontinence, INO Nystagmus |
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Absence sz
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diffuse, petit mal, 3 Hz, no postictal confusion, blank stare
1st line tx ethosuximide |
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Tonic clonic sz
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diffuse, grand mal, alt stiffening and movement
1st line tx valproic acid |
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Migraine
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unilateral, pulsating pain, due to irritation of CN V and release of substance P, CGRP, vasoactive peptides
tx propranolol, NSAIDS, sumatriptan for acute migraines |
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Peripheral vertigo
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more common
inner ear etiology positional testing- delayed horizontal nystagmus |
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Central vertigo
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brain stem or cerebellar lesion
postional testing- immediate nystagmus in any direction, may change directions |
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TS
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HAMARTOMAS
Hamartomas in CNS and skin, Aenoma sebaceum, MR, Ash leaf sports, cardiac Rhabdomyoma, (TS), autOsomal dominant, MR, renal Angiomyolipoma, Seizures |
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GBM
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MC primary brain tumor, grave prognosis, found in cerebral hemispheres, can cross corpus callosum- butterfly glioma, stain astrocytes for GFAP, pseudopalisading pleomorphic tumor cells
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Pilocytic astrocytoma
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well circumscribed, GFAP positive, benign, good prognosis
Rosenthal fibers- eosinophilic, corkscrew fibers cystic + solid |
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Signs of uncal herniation
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ipsi dilated pupil/ptosis, contra homonymous hemianopia, ipsi paresis, duret hemorrhages- paramedian artery rupture
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Heterogenously enhancing lesion
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GBM
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Uniformly enhancing lesion
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Metastatic lymphoma- often B cell NHL
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Ring enhancing lesion
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Mets- lung, breast, melanoma, kidney, GI; abscesses; toxo; primary CNS lymphoma
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Tx for acute status epilepticus
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Benzos- diazepam or lorazepam
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Tx for prophylaxis of status epilepticus
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Phenytoin
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Induction of anesthesia
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Thiopental
barbiturate IV anesthetic high potency, high lipid solubility, rapid entry into brain effect terminated by rapid redistribution into tissue ie skeletal muscle and fat dec cerebral blood flow |
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Short acting benzos
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TOM Triazolam, Oxazepam, Midazolam
highest addictive potential |
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Benzo MOA
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facilitate GABA A action by inc FREQUENCY of Cl channel opening
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Barbiturates MOA
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facilitate GABA A action by inc DURATION of Cl channel opening
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Nonbenzo hypnotics
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Zolpidem- Ambien, zaleplon, eszopiclone
act via BZI receptor subtype, reversed by flumazenil |
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MAC
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minimal alveolar concentration at which 50% of the population is anesthetized
varies with age |
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Anesthetics with low sol in blood
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Rapid induction and recovery times
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Anesthetics with high sol in lipids
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High potency
low MAC |
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Halothane
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high lipid and blood solubility
high potency and slow induction |
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N2O
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low blood and lipid solubility
low potency, rapid induction |
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MC drug used for endoscopy
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Midazolam- benzo, IV anesthetic, may cause severe post op resp depression!!! dec bp and amnesia
tx with flumazenil |
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Ketamine
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arylcyclohexylamine
PCP analog IV anesthetic, used as dissociative anesthetic blocks NMDA receptors CV stimulants, causes disorientation, hallucination, bad dreams, inc cerebral blood flow |
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Propofol
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rapid anesthesia induction, IV, short procedures
less postop nausea than thiopental potentiates GABA A |
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Order of nerve blockade by local anesthetics
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small myelinated fibers> small unmyel > large myel > large unmyel
order of loss- pain lost first, then temp, touch, pressure lost last |
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Depolarizing neuromuscular blocking drugs
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Succinylcholine
complications include hypercalcemia and hyperkalemia cant reverse in phase I- prolonged depolarization phase II - antidote cholinesterase inhib |
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Non depolarizing neuromuscular blocking drugs
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Tubocurarine, atracurium, mivacurium
competitive- compete with ACh for receptors reversal with cholinesterase inhibitors |
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Neostigmine
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cholinesterase inhib
another- edrophonium |
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Tx malignant hyperthermia
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Dantrolene
prevents release of Ca from sarcoplasmic reticulum of skeletal muscle mal hyperthermia caused by inhal anesthetics and succinylcholine also tx neuroleptic malignant syndrome- tox of antipsychotics |
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Amantadine
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inc dopamine release
also used as antiviral against influenze A and rubella tox- ataxia |
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Benztropine
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antimuscarinic
used in parkinsons, improves tremor and rigidity Park your mercedes Benz |
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Tx essential familial tremor
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beta blocker- propanolol
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Parkinson tx
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BALSA
bromocriptine, amantadine, levodopa with carbidopa, selegiline and COMT inhibitors, antimuscarinics |
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Memantine
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NMDA receptor antagonist, helps prevent excitotox mediated by Ca
tx Alzheimers tox dizziness, confusion, hallucinations |
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Acetylcholinesterase inhibitors
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donepezill, galantamine, rivastigmine
tx Alzheimers dse tox nausea, dizziness, insomnia |
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Tx Huntingtons dse
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dse has inc dopamine, dec GABA and ACh
reserpine and tetrabenazine- amine depleting haloperidol- dopamine receptor antagonist |
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Sumatriptan
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5 HT 1b/1d agonist
causes vasooconstriction, inhib of trigeminal actiation and vasoactive peptide release tx acute migraine, cluster HA atacks tox coronary vasospasm, mild tingling |
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Base of basilar membrane
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near oval and round windows
narrow and stiff responds best to high frequencies |
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Apex of basilar membrane
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near the helicotrema
wide and compliant, responds best to low frequencies |
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Hexamethonium
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ganglionic blocker
blocks nicotinic receptors in autonomic ganglia, not at NMJ |
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Erection
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parasympathetic muscarinic response
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C fibers
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slow pain fibers, smallest nerve fibers, have the slowest conduction velocity
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Rods
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more sensitive to low intensity light than cones
for night vision |
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Sympathetic nervous system
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preganglionic neurons originate in thoracolumbar spinal cord
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Parasympathetic nervous system
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preganglionic neurons originate in the craniosacral spinal cord
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Cutting what structure on the left side causes total blindness in left eye?
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Optic nerve
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Stretch reflex
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monosynaptic response to stretching of a muscle
excitation of ipsi homonymous muscle |
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Nystagmus
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same direction as movement
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Postrotatory nystagmus
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opposite direction as movement
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A lesion of the chorda tympani nerve would cause
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impaired taste function
part of CN VII- innervates anterior 2/3 tongue |
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Excitation of hair cells in right horizontal semicircular canal from
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rotating head to right
causes bending of sterocilia toward kinocilia depolarization |
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Complete transection of sc at T1 would result in
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temporary loss of stretch reflexes below the lesion- spinal shock
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Flexor withdrawal reflex
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polysynaptic reflex, used when a person touches a hot stove or steps on a tack, ipsi side of painful stimulus- flexion, contra side- extension to maintain balance
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Phenoxybenzamine
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alpha 1 receptor antagonist
decreased intracelllar IP3/Ca 2+ |
