Neuroanatomy Final

Front 1

What 3 divisions are there of the hypothalamus?

Back 1

1) Preoptic area
2) Supraoptic area (PVN, anterior nucleus, supraoptic nucleus, suprachiasmatic nucleus)
3) tuberal region (dorsomedial nucleus, ventromedial nucleus, arcuate nucleus)
4) mammillary region (mammillary body, posterior nucleus)

Front 2

Which parts of the hypothalamus are parasympathetic?

Back 2

preoptic area and anterior nucleus

Front 3

Which parts of the hypothalamus are sympathetic?

Back 3

posterior nucleus and part of the ventromedial nucleus

Front 4

Where does the mammillary body innervate and where does it finally go?

Back 4

Mammillary body->A, LD of thalamus->cingulate gyrus

Front 5

Which part of the hypothalamus is considered telencephalon?

Back 5

preoptic area and suprachiasmatic nucleus (the rest of hypothalamus diencephalon)

Front 6

Where does the SCN get info from?

Back 6

the retina; important in cyclical activity in circadian rhythms

Front 7

Which structures of the hypothalamus have magnocellular portions and what do they do?

Back 7

1) PVN- releases oxytocin to the posterior lobe of the pituitary
2) supraoptic nucleus- releases basopressin to the posterior lobe of the pituitary

Front 8

Why are magnocellular and parvocellular cells called neurosecretory and how are they connected/function?

Back 8

-because they release hormones
- connected by capillary beds connecting these nucli and hormones go directly into systemic circulation from brain

Front 9

Which structures of the hypothalamus have parvocellular portions and what do they do?

Back 9

1) arcuate nucleus
2) PVN
-both release release hormone-releasing hormones (like leuteinizing hormone, follicle-stimulating hormone, etc.)

Front 10

What is oxytocin involved in?

Back 10

uterine contraction and milk "letdown"

Front 11

What is vasopressin called otherwise and what does it do?

Back 11

- also called antidiuretic hormone and acts on kidneys to conserve water

Front 12

what is the portal vein and where is one found?

Back 12

runs between 2 capillary beds, seen in pituitary called hypophyseal portal vein

Front 13

What is the anterior pituitary made out of and what does it do?

Back 13

- made out of gland cells which include those that release thyroid-stimulating hormone
- receptors for certain hormones to release other hormone-releasing hormones, etc.

Front 14

What are the functions of the dorsomedial and ventromedial nuclei?

Back 14

related to eating/feeding

Front 15

What input does the mammillary body get?

Back 15

from hippocampal formation

Front 16

What is the cascade of the thyroid hormonal system?

Back 16

Neuron in tuberal nuclei (parvocellular) causes thyroid hormone-releasing hormone to go into the hypophyseal portal system to a secretory cell in the anterior pituitary which releases thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) which goes to the thyroid gland and stimulates it to secrete thyroxin

Front 17

What is the definition of limbic structures?

Back 17

- structures in synaptic proximity of the hypothalamus (project directly or indirectly), related to emotional and motivational aspects of behavior and formation of memories

Front 18

Where is the amygdala located?

Back 18

- medial aspect of temporal love
- ventral surface of brain near optic chiasm

Front 19

What are the 3 parts of the amygdala?

Back 19

1) olfactory amygdala
2) cortex-like amygdala (BL= Basolateral)
3) striatal or subpallial structure (medial nucleus, central nucleus, BNST)

Front 20

What is the basolateral amygdala important in?

Back 20

developing avoidance to auditory and gustatory stimuli

Front 21

Where are the bed nucleus of stria terminalis located?

Back 21

- means "embedded fibers"
- fibers from amygdala, extension of striatal nuclei

Front 22

Where is the orbitofrontal cortex located?

Back 22

part of PFC, ventral of eyeballs (near orbits)

Front 23

Where does the central nucleus of the amygdala innervate?

Back 23

brainstem and hypothalamus (through ANS)

Front 24

Where does the medial nucleus of the amygdala go?

Back 24

brainstem and hypothalamus (particularly through endocrine area)

Front 25

Where does the olfactory nucleus of the amygdala go?

Back 25

hypothalamus directly

Front 26

What is considered the limbic version of the striatum?

Back 26

nucleus accumbens in the ventral striatum

Front 27

What are the results when the amygdala is damaged?

Back 27

- aggressive behavior above normal
- more fearful (even happens just stimulating amygdala)

Front 28

What is the function of the amygdala?

Back 28

establishes links between internal and external stimuli and emotional value of stimuli

Front 29

What is Urbach-Wiethe Disease, how is it caused, and what is the result of it?

Back 29

- amygdala replaced by calcium deposits bilaterally over time
- due to rare autosomal recessive gene
- no problems in learning, but had very positive attitude, no inhibition about strangers, didn't fear anything and couldn't interpret it in other people, couldn't make sound social judgments after experience but did know what fear was supposed to be and what to do in those situations; anger also not completely normal

Front 30

What are 2 areas of unimodal association?

Back 30

parahippocampal gyrus and cingulate gyrus

Front 31

What kinds of neurons does the septal nucleus and nucleus basalis have?

Back 31

cholinergic neurons

Front 32

Who is HM and what losses did he/she have as a result of surgery?

Back 32

- at age 10 had major seizures which progressed
- at age 27 had amygdala, hippocampus, and surroudning cortices including entorhinal area removed to reduce seizures
- intelligent, normal personality but cant make new memories (retrograde amnesia), only way to remember is if it's in his working memory
- can learn procedural tasks like drawing while looking in a mirror and had normal learning curve

Front 33

What is the cause of HM's losses in memory?

Back 33

- unimodal association areas
- patient deprived of O2 during surgery and found one part of CA field in hippocampus damaged which disrupted flow of info into/out of hippocampus
- old memories already gone out to other areas but those in hippocampus make new memories and won't go out to unimodal association areas

Front 34

3 parts of hippocampus?

Back 34

1) dentate gyrus
2) hippocampus proper/CA fields (cornu ammonis "horns of ammus")
3) subiculum

Front 35

What are the inputs to the basolateral amygdala?

Back 35

1) unimodal association areas (21, 22, 7)
2) thalamus (auditory and gustatory)
3) ACh from the nucleus basalis

Front 36

What are the outputs of the basolateral amygdala?

Back 36

1) M, C
2) DM nucleus of the thalamus->PFC
3) ventral striatum (nucleus accumbens)

Front 37

What are the inputs to M, C of the amygdala?

Back 37

1) hippocampal formation
2) insular cortex
3) orbitofrontal cortex
4) basolateral amygdala

Front 38

What is the input and output of the olfactory amygdala?

Back 38

input: olfactory bulb
output: M, C of amygdala

Front 39

What is the Schaffer collateral?

Back 39

- fiber that runs from the dentate gyrus to the cingulate gyrus

Front 40

What is the flow of info in the hippocampus?

Back 40

1) unimodal association areas->dentate gyrus
2) CA3->CA1->CA2->hippocampus proper->subiculum->entorhinal area of parahippocampal gyrus->unimodal association areas (multimodal)

Front 41

What are the inputs to the entorhinal area of the parahippocampal gyrus?

Back 41

1) olfactory bulb->primary olfactory cortex
2) primary olfactory cortex
3) unimodal association areas

Front 42

What is the principal pathway involving hippocampal formation and neocortex?

Back 42

entorhinal cortex of parahippocampal gyrus (28)->dentate gyrus->CA3->CA1->subiculum (or direct) to entorhinal cortex

Front 43

3 layers of the hippocampal cortex?

Back 43

1) molecular layer (excited by Schaffer collateral which goes to CA1)
2) pyramidal layer (whose cells excite the cells in the polymorph layer and have the schaffer collaterals off them); output to the fornix
3) polymorph layer (stratum oriens) whose cells inhibit the pyramidal layer cells

Front 44

What are 5 similarities between the vestibular and the auditory systems?

Back 44

1) VIII CN
2) hair cells in inner ear
3) derive from otic capsule (from otic placode)
4) fibers go to special somatic sensory corner of medulla
5) vestibular and cochlear nuclei

Front 45

What are the differences in function of the auditory and vestibular systems?

Back 45

Auditory: detects sound waves
Vestibular: detects balance/tilt

Front 46

What are Hz and pitch?

Back 46

Hz= frequency of sound= cycles/sec
pitch= number of cycles/sec

Front 47

Normal hearing range in humans?

Back 47

20-16,000 Hz
most sensitive around 3,000 Hz
tend to use from 300-3,000 Hz

Front 48

What is amplitude and what is it measured in?

Back 48

amplitude= dB (decibels)
conversational speech about 65dB
if exposed to sounds greater than 100dB will have permanent hearing loss
uses a logarithmic scale

Front 49

What is the tympanic membrane and how much does it vibrate?

Back 49

thin membrane
vibrates 1/10th angrstom with conversation

Front 50

What are the 3 middle ear ossicles and where are they located?

Back 50

1) malleus closest to eardrum
2) incus in middle
3) stapes most inner, connected to oval window

Front 51

What is the Eustachian tube and what happens when it's inflamed?

Back 51

pressure on one side or other will cause hearing to be abnormal, like in an airplane

Front 52

Which vibration is larger- the ear drum or the oval window?

Back 52

oval window because gets amplified and also much smaller than eardrum

Front 53

What is the stampedius muscle and what is it innervate by?

Back 53

- muscle on stapes
- diminishes sound transmitted there
- innervated by CN VII (facial nucleus)

Front 54

What is the tensor tympanii innervated by?

Back 54

Motor nucleus of V

Front 55

Where are the tectorial and basilar membranes and what do they do?

Back 55

tectorial membrane has hair cells on it; when basilar membrane moves, it bends the hair cells on the tectorial membrane

Front 56

What is endolymph and perilymph?

Back 56

endolymph is like IC fluid and has a lot of K+ while perilymph is like EC fluid

Front 57

How does the bending of hair cells in the ear work?

Back 57

Bending causes mechanically-gated K+ channels to open and Ca++ to flow into hair cells and release neurotransmitter (glutamate) to another neurite
- movement to R opens channels; movement to L closes channels

Front 58

What are the hair cells in the ear called?

Back 58

stereocilia except for the last larger one called kinocilium attached to the basal body which is polarized maximmaly

Front 59

What is the route from a hair cell?

Back 59

hair cell sends info through CNVIII to the cell body in the spiral ganglion to the cochlear nuclei in the CNS

Front 60

How many inner v. outer hair cells are there and what are their functions?

Back 60

3000-4000 inner hair cells, 12000 outer hair cells
- but inner hair cells more important (connected to 95% of fibers of brain)
- outer hair cells set sensitivity of ear (if close together doesn't take much deflection to hear and vice versa) and allows us to filter out sounds

Front 61

Does damage on one side of ascending auditory pathways ever cause damage to the ears?

Back 61

It never causes loss of either ear completely because of large number of decussations

Front 62

How does the tonotopic map work?

Back 62

the base of the cochlea near the oval window represents high frequency and is a stiff region while the apex or heliocotrema represents low frequency and is a flexible region

Front 63

What separates scala vestibula, scala media, scala tympani?

Back 63

membranes:
1) Reissner's membrane separates the scala vestibuli and scala media
2) basilar membrane separates the scala media from the scala tympani

Front 64

Where are scala vestibula, scala media, and scala tympani in the cochlea and what does it mean?

Back 64

- scala media is the most innermost area, scala vestibuli is the most outermost, and scala tympani between them
- scala tympani highest frequency and scala media lowest frequency

Front 65

What is the efferent pathway to the outer hair cells?

Back 65

olivocochlear bundle

Front 66

What is the function of descending auditory pathways?

Back 66

attuning to things

Front 67

What is the function of the vestibular system?

Back 67

- maintains visual stabilization of an object (can continue to focus on something no matter position to you)

Front 68

What are the utricle and saccule called?

Back 68

static labyrinths because sense tilt of head

Front 69

What is the difference between the utricle and saccule?

Back 69

they're both fluid-filled but the utricle has horizontal orientation of hair cells (towards the striola of the macula) while the saccule has vertical orientation of hair cells

Front 70

What are the semicircular canals' function and how are they arranged?

Back 70

- measure acceleration of head
- perpendicular to eachother
- have ampulla (swelling) in each canal

Front 71

What is an ampulla and what does it do in terms of the vestibular system?

Back 71

has endolymph and a gelatinous cupula inside whose movement causes movement of hair cells on the crista and supporting cells to bend

Front 72

What happens in the horizontal canals if you move your head to the left?

Back 72

fluid will lag behind and one side will activate fibers of VIII nerve and the other side will decrease firing of VIII nerve

Front 73

What is the macula and how does it work?

Back 73

- where sensory structures are located in the utricle
- above the hair cells is an otolithic membrane (macula) with ear stones made of Ca++ which move and bend/excite the hair cells underneath

Front 74

Which structures involved in movement of eyes in response to movement of head?

Back 74

abducens, oculamotor, trochlear nucleus influenced by MLF from medulla level up to eye; MLF intermediate btw vestibular and eye movement

Front 75

Which structures involved in influencing muscles from movement of head?

Back 75

- descending connections in descending MLF, will influence axial musculature
- descending lateral vestibulospinal tract influences medial musculature too

Front 76

Which ascending pathway projects to Brodmann's area 2 (primary vestibular cortex)?

Back 76

vestibular nuclei->VPI (ventral posterior inferior nucleus of the thalamus)->Brodmann's area 2 (primary vestibular cortex)

Front 77

The afferent out of the ampulla?

Back 77

cell bodies in vestibular ganglion and to vestibular system

Front 78

What is the choroid of the eye and what is its function?

Back 78

choroid- absorbs light, is pigmented

Front 79

Which muscle and nerve innervates the iris and what does it do?

Back 79

- iris changes amount of light coming through pupil
- ciliary muscle pulls on lens and decreases tension in fibers of zonnule of zinn
- edinger-westphal nucleus and superior cervical ganglion from T1-T4 constrict pupil
- over time, lens decreases elasticity

Front 80

taptum lucidum?

Back 80

- shiny irredescent black part of eye near retina
- causes "eye-shine" like deer in the headlights

Front 81

when do you have trichromatic vision?

Back 81

when all 3 kinds of rods are working

Front 82

What do photoreceptors do?

Back 82

- change with light (more light= cones, less light= rods)
- rods/cones->bipolar cells->ganglion cells (action potential generated)

Front 83

Fovea?

Back 83

- clearest vision/details
- where photoreceptors easiest to get to because rod-free area
- lots of cones, not many rods

Front 84

Why don't we always have a blind spot?

Back 84

Cortex fills in blind spot with rest of environment

Front 85

what is the consensual pupillary constriction reflex?

Back 85

- shine light in one eye, both eyes should constrict automatically

Front 86

What function does parvocellular input from cones do?

Back 86

sees small part of visual field, so resolves detail well

Front 87

Function of magnocellular input in eye?

Back 87

- gets input from large number of fibers mostly rods (bipolar cells intermediary), sees larger visual fields so more sensitive to movement across them

Front 88

"What stream"

Back 88

parvocellular retinal ganglion cells->P layers of LGN->P part of V1->V2 (illusory contours), V4 interblob (form with color), V4 blob (color)

Front 89

If you lesion V4 bilaterally, what happens?

Back 89

causes achromatopsia (lose color)

Front 90

How/Where stream

Back 90

Magnocellular retinal ganglion cells->M layers of LGN->M Part of V1->V2, V3 (Dynamic Form), V5 (motion)

Front 91

If you lesion V5 bilaterally, what happens?

Back 91

akinetopsia (ex: Ingrid)

Front 92

What are the 3 kinds of rods?

Back 92

1) 3 kinds of rhodopsin
2) opsin
3) short, med. long

Front 93

What are the subsets of bipolar cells?

Back 93

horizontal cells and amacrine cells

Front 94

How are the hemispheres asymmetric?

Back 94

-left hemisphere has much more sulci (= more cortex) near Broca's area compared to right hemisphere
- Sylvian fissue also more horizontal in left hemishere because inferior parietal lobule larger in left than right (for reading/writing?)

Front 95

Language-to-handedness phenomenon

Back 95

- 96% right-handed people have language in left hemisphere and 0% in both while only 70% of left-handed people have language in left hemisphere and 15% in both hemispheres

Front 96

What connects Wernicke's and Broca's areas?

Back 96

arcuate fasciculus

Front 97

Wernicke's area issues

Back 97

comprehension deficit called receptive aphasia

Front 98

Broca's area damage

Back 98

expressive aphasia, reduced fluency language, can be mute or lose certain parts of language but have comprehension

Front 99

Wernicke-Geshwind Model of alexia with agraphia

Back 99

- reading and writing deficits as well as issues recognizing letters is a deficit in the angular gyrus because get visual information and somatosensory info (alexia with agraphia- inability to read and write)

Front 100

Wernicke-Geshwind Model of pure alexia

Back 100

means can write (somatosensory intact) but can't read their writing and have visual deficits in their right visual field--V1 on left side compromised which goes into splenium of corpus callosum so right side cant get info to left

Front 101

Cat experiments with split-brain

Back 101

- patch over right eye on cat and put cat into box and trained it to know vertical lines meant food rewards and vertical lines bad
- patched other eye later and acted like it never learned this so corpus callosum essential to relay info between hemispheres

Front 102

Split brain patients

Back 102

- corpus callosum and optic chiasm cut which causes input of right eye confined to right side of brain and vice versa
- helps seizures and generally normal patients except they speak what they see in right field and say they don't see what is flashed on left even though they correctly identify the object
- right hemisphere better in spatial problems and provides direction to other hand
- when shown chimeric face, if told to say what they see will say its a man (right hemisphere) but will point to woman (left hemisphere)

Front 103

What does a lesion of the mirror of Broca's area on the R cause?

Back 103

expressive aprosodia (monotony of speech, inability to change intonation/meaning of words)

Front 104

What does a lesion of the mirror of Wernicke's area on the R cause?

Back 104

receptive aprosodia (don't understand intonations/meanings but can use them)

Front 105

What does a lesion of the fusiform gyrus of both or right side cause?

Back 105

prosopagnosia- can't recognize faces anymore, even familiar ones but can remember once they hear voice and can recognize individual facial features

Front 106

What causes neglect of the left visual field?

Back 106

- R hemisphere lesion in parietal lobe causes contralateral personal, spatial, and representational (imagining a situation) neglect
- when made aware of neglect, can become aware of it

Front 107

Why is neglect of the right visual field less common?

Back 107

- both left and right visual field info activates right parietal lobe which is more important in spatial tasks; left hemisphere parietal lobe lesion only causes minimal right neglect
- to have severe right side neglect, have to have partial bilateral lesions

Front 108

What are the 3 sections of the prefrontal cortex?

Back 108

1) dorsolateral
2) dorsomedial
3) ventromedial

Front 109

What is the function of the dorsolateral part of the PFC?

Back 109

working memory, intellectual capacities, creative and flexible thinking, fluency in verbal and design

Front 110

What is the function of the dorsomedial part of the PFC?

Back 110

emotional behavior, motivational drive, arousal and alertness, personality

Front 111

What is the function of the ventromedial part of the PFC?

Back 111

also called orbitofrontal cortex, important in social conduct, planning, decision making, emotional states causing bodily states

Front 112

Describe the monkey experiment done with working memory

Back 112

- monkeys looked forward while cue on side happened and during given signal looked towards where cue as shown so had to keep signal in working memory
- correct trials showed high neuron firing rate in dorsolateral PFC until monkey could look at location
- incorrect trials showed low firing rates throughout and diseappeared before looking at location

Front 113

Phineas Gage damage and results?

Back 113

- damage to ventromedial and dorsomedial areas with some preservation of dorsolateral areas
- unreasonable, planning ahead bad, didnt consider others feelings, made up stories, fond of pets, children, and crowbar, lots of interests but didnt follow through
- bar went through cheek to top of head

Front 114

Result of lesions between parietal and occipital lobes (Zasetsky)

Back 114

- psychologist Luria
- Zasetsky soldier and scientist
- after wounded, couldnt understand words or respond, memory fragments evolved and could remember words and events, disconnected thoughts, reacted abnormally, speech simple, couldnt write any words, occipital lobe damaged and vision bad (couldn't see entire objects), hallucinations, right neglect, sense of his own dimensions changes, actions in space bad
- still had wills, desires, sustained intentions and plan actions; aware of his problems
- gradually better but failed linguistic constructions, wrote journals