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46 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Briefly explain the link between the nervous system and the endocrine system.
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the job of the NS is to detect change either inside of outside the body and organize some appropriate response to it. The job of the endocrine system is similar. But where the NS acts through nerve impulses along nerve cells and the response is fast and short lasting, the endocrine system acts through hormones and is slower but longer lasting. There are common features between the hormone molecules of glands and the neurotransmitters of molecules. And there are many physical and physiological links between the two systems, so it's becoming more common to think of them as being different aspects of the same neuro-endocrine system.
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Give a brief over view of the 2 main divisions of the nervous system.
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The NS is divided into 2 main sub-systems. A 3rd sub-system the Enteric NS is sometimes recognized. 1. The Central Nervous System CNS- the brain and spinal chord, 2. The peripheral Nervous System PNS is everything else. The NS had sensory integrative and nervous functions. In a way you can see the peripheral nerves carrying in the sensory (afferent) info to the brain and spinal chord where the integrating and organizing of the responses is done and then sent out back down the peripheral nerve as a motor (afferent) response. The PNS is made up of the somatic (voluntary) and autonomic (involuntary) systems. (The enteric is seperate but also involuntary). The autonomic has 2 parts: sympathetic and parasympathetic.
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Describe the Enteric Nervous system.
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Enteric NS- which is actually part of the peripheral NS. It's a complex and extensive network of neurones in the walls of the digestive tract organs. In a way this network of neurones in the enteric NS works like a mini brain, working out what's going on in the digestive system at any one time and organising appropriate responses there, without reference to the brain in the skull. Deals with smooth mm and glands of the digestive tract.
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What does the Somatic system deal with?
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skeletal muscle, eg biceps, quads etc Things you have to move voluntarily.
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What does the autonomic nervous system deal with?
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smooth muscle, blood vessels, cardiac muscle, glands.
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What is a nerve?
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A bundle of hundreds to thousands of axons plus associated connective tissue and blood vessels that lie outside the spinal chord. Each nerve follows a defined path and serves a specific region of the body.
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What are meninges?
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They are 3 layers of connective tissue coverings around the brain and spinal chord. The 3 layers are 1- dura mater 2. arachnoid mater 3. pia mater
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How many pairs of spinal nerves are there?
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31
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What do spinal nerves contain?
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They contain sensory neurones going in and Motor neurones going out.
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What happens to all the sensory neurons in a nerve as they enter the spinal chord.
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As the spinal nerve enters the spinal cord. the sensory neuron goes in the back of the spinal cord. This is true for all the sensory neurons- they all separate out of the nerve together and go in the back of the spinal cord together. That's why it is sometimes called the sensory root.
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Where do the motor neurons leave the spinal cord?
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The motor neuron goes out of the front (anterior) of the spinal chord. This is true for all motor neurons. They all go out of the anterior (ventral) root, which is why it's sometimes called the motor root.
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What is a reflex?
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A reflex is a fast involuntary sequence of actions that occurs in response to a particular stimulus. Some references are inborn and some are learned.
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What are plexi in the nervous system?
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a branching network of nerves. The nerves are typically axons outside the central nervous system. 31 pairs of nerves emerge from the spinal cord. In the thoracic area they come out and follow the ribs around in a nice orderly fashion. But everywhere else, they immediately cross over and connect with the one(s) above and below to form what are called plexi (or singular plexus). what happens in these plexi is that individual neurons are crossing over to join the next nerve above or below or even two or three above or below. After the nerves have been through these plexi they resolve themselves into nerves with names that may be familiar to you, eg median, ulnar, femoral, obdurator, etc.
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Name 4 plexi?
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cervical plexus, brachial plexus, lumbar plexus, sacral plexus. Celiac plexus (solar plexus), cardiac plexus.
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Where is the hypothalamus?
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it is in the anterior and mid line of the brain just above the pituitary gland. base of brain.
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Why is the hypothalamus important
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Because it helps regulate and control the nerve impulses for: Body Temperature, Emotions, Hunger, Thirst, Circadian Rhythms.
In it there are sensory neurons coming in from all over the body up the spinal cord to synapses here as well as neurons coming in from all over the brain to synapses here. Numerous nuclei here are integrating and assessing all this information and organizing responses and sending impulses down motor neurones all over the body to make responses to the sensory info happen. This area of the brain is important because it is the area where sensory info is processed and responded to. Vital to our body's capability to act. |
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Some responses the Hypothalamus make happen.
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Control of the Autonomic Nervous System, control of the pituitary gland the hypothalamus controls the release of a number of hormones from the pituitary it is therefore an important point of connection between the nervous system and the endocrine system- it explains why a neurological thing like a thought or worry can have physical affects on the body through a hormone. Regulates emotional and behavioural patterns. Regulates eating and drinking via a thirst centre and a satiety centre. Control of body temp, the hypothalamus detects body temp via the blood flowing through it, and may contact blood vessels near the surface to retain heat or cause shivering to generate heat. Regulation of circadian rhythms and states of consciousness establish daily waking and sleeping patterns.
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Where is the cerebellum located and what does it do?
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At the back/posterior of the brain stem. In front of the pons. Controls movement balance and posture. It connects with other areas of the brain. It smooths and co-ordinates complex sequences of muscle action, regulates posture and balance and all skilled motor activities.
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What part of the nervous system regulates the Autonomic Nervous System?
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the ANS is regulated mainly by the hypothalamus and brain stem.
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Briefly compare the functions of the somatic nervous systems and the autonomic nervous system.
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Somatic NS controls voluntary actions. Autonomic, control one's you are not aware, it is an automatic system. Somatic sensory neurons convey sensations of pain, temperature, touch, proprioception, and special senses to brain and spinal cord where you become aware of them. A response is organised and sent down somatic motor neurons to skeletal muscle and you're usually aware of it. Autonomic sensory neurons convey sensations associated with internal conditions eg blood CO2 or stretching in the walls of organs or blood vessels. You're not usually aware of them, unless you're sick or have eaten too much (etc), Autonomic motor neurons control cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, and glands.
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Between which levels of the spinal cord do sympathetic motor neurons emerge?
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Between D1 and L2
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From which levels of the brain and spinal cord do the parasympathetic motor neurons emerge?
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Cranial nerves 3, 7, 9 and 10, and S2, S3 and S4
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Which is the most extensive parasympathetic motor nerve and broadly what does it supply?
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Cranial nerve X- the vagus nerve- which supplies everything in the thorax and abdomen, up to the transverse colon.
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Name 4 organs which do have a sympathetic nerve supply but do not have a parasympathetic nerve supply?
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Sweat glands, arrector pilli, spleen, most blood vessels, adrenal medulla
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Briefly describe the effects that parasympathetic nerve supply activities have on the body.
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Parasympathetic activities conserve and restore body energy eg (SLUDD- Salivation, Lacrimation, Urination, Digestion, Defecation, These are stimulated. Decreases heart rate, airway diameter, pupil constriction.
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Briefly describe the effects that sympathetic nerve supply activities have on the body?
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The sympathetic NS cuts in under stressful conditions. This can be physical or emotional stress, eg fear embarassment, rage. It's the sympathetic NS that's responsible for the uncomfortable feelings you get under these circumstances. It increases body activities that support: vigorous physical activity, production of ATP. It reduces body activities that favor: the storage of energy. So the sympathetic is much more about mobilizing energy making it available for vigorous activity in a fright/flight situation.
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What does the Sympathetic nervous system help make happen in a fright or flight situation?
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Pupils of eyes dilate, heart rate, force of heart contraction, and blood pressure increase, airways dilate, blood vessels supplying non essential organs contract reducing blood flow to them, blood vessels supplying organs involved in excersize or fighting off danger- skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, liver, adipose tissue, dilate. Liver cells break down glycogen to glucose, and adipose cells break down triglycerides to fatty acids and glycerol that can be used by cells for ATP production.
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What is Alzheimer Disease?
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It is a progressive degenerative disorder of the brain causing memory loss, personality changes, and eventually death.
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What causes Alzheimer's Disease?
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It is caused by Plaques and Neurofibrillary tangles in the brain. Plaques are sticky deposits of a protien called beta amyloid. It is produced by many cells in the body but when it accumulates in the brain it stimulates an inflammatory response that kills the brain cells. Neurofibrillary tangles are made up of another protein called tau which should support nerve cells, but collapse and become twisted so that the nerve cells can't function properly, shrink and die. Also the hippocampus of the brain which stores new information and knowledge shrinks so the patient loses memories and can't process new information.
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What is peripheral Neuropathy?
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Not a disease or a condition but a symptom or complication of other underlying conditions. Peripheral nerve(s) are damaged through lack of blood supply, chemical imbalance trauma or other factors. It is usually a consequence of some other injury, infection or systemic disease.
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How might you recognize peripheral neuropathy?
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Symptoms include burning or tingling pain that begins distally and moves proximally, cramping, or twitching hyperesthesia, or autonomic dysfunction which could include problems with digestion, heart rate, breathing or other systems.
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What is Parkinson's disease?
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It is a movement disorder involving the degeneration of nerve tissue and a reduction in neurotransmitter production in the CNS.
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What causes Parkinson's disease?
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In the brain are small pockets of nerve cells that are involved in learned reflexes, motor control, coordination and smooth movement. These cells get a neurotransmitter, dopamine, from cells nearby in an area called the substantia nigra. In PD the basal ganglia cells die, so the basal ganglia cells can't do their job, so coordination and controlled movement are lost. It's not clear why the cells degenerate but risk factors include: pesticides, herbicides, fertilisers, and other industrial chemicals. In some cases there is a genetic involvement.
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What symptoms might lead you to suspect that a patient was developing Parkinson's disease?
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Non specific achiness, weariness, weakness, and fatigue (slow onset). Resting tremor- pill rolling in hand, but also foot, head and neck- worse at rest but absent when sleeping or engaged in activity. Bradykinesia-difficulty initiating or sustaining movement. Rigidity-flexor muscles tighten, leading to stooped posture, arms, legs, mask like face, reduced blinking, increased drooling, difficulty eating and swallowing. Uncoordinated movement and poor balance, falling. Shuffling gait. Monotone and expressionless speech. Shrinking cramped handwriting- poor muscle coordination, sleep disorders, depression and anxiety, loss of memory and understanding.
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Describe the main signs and symptoms of Tension headaches?
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may be episodic or chronic. Often bilateral or diffuse. Patients may describe a tight band around the head or a deep dull ache rather than a precise focal point for pain.
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Describe the main signs and symptoms of Migraine headaches?
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2 types, one with aura one without. Both types- some of all of- throbbing pain on one side perhaps with same side eye and nostril watering, sensitivity to light and noise nausea and vomiting, tingling or other sensation changes in extremities. May last several hours or days. With aura migraines have the same as above but with added flashing and jagged lights, blurred vision and auditory hallucinations.
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Describe the main signs and symptoms of Cluster headaches?
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Rarer than the other types: Unilateral may cause some same side eye and nostril to water. A Few moments to several hours. Come in clusters - 1-4 headaches a day for 4-8 weeks. Usually at night, severe enough to wake from sleep. Restlessness.
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Give 3 possible serious underlying conditions that might be indicated with headaches?
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A serious underlying condition might be indicated when sever, repeating, and sudden onset (thunderclap headache) when they appear in a new pattern, after age 50, or when gradual onset but no remission. Slurred speach, numbness anywhere in the body, and difficulty with motor control. Possible serious conditions: encephalitis, meningitis, stroke, tumor, aneurysm.
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What is multiple sclerosis?
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it is a condition characterised by inflammation and degeneration of the myelin sheaths in the spinal chord and brain. It is thought to be an autoimmune disease but the triggers appear to differ from person to person.
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Briefly describe the etiology of multiple sclerosis.
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White blood cells attack the myelin sheathes nerve cells. The myelin producing cells multiply to repair the damage, but fail and the myelin is replaced with scar tissue which does not conduct the nerve impulse as well or at all. The nerve cell itself may then die. Often attacks are in flares, followed by remissions when the myelin may regenerate, so the symptoms may come and go. Some people seem to be genetically predisposed, but some combination of environmental triggers also involved. Incidence increases with distance from the equator- VIT D (promoted by sunlight) seems to suppress white blood cells that promote inflammation.
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Outline the main signs and symptoms of multiple sclerosis.
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symptoms depend on which areas of nerve tissue affected by the inflammation. Weakness (nerve transmission slow because myelin disrupted). Spasm, muscle stiffness or spasm. Altered sensation- numbness +/- pins and needles. Eye pain/loss of function if optic nerve myelin affected. Incontinence/difficulty urinating. Sexual dysfunction. Difficulty walking. Loss of short term memory and procedural memory. Nausea/diarrhea/constipation. Heat sensitivity. Fatigue. Depression.
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What is motor neurone disease (Lou Gehrig disease/amyotrophic lateral sclerosis)?
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A progressive and fatal condition that destroys motor neurons in the central and peripheral nervous systems leading to the wasting of voluntary muscles. The cause is unknown.
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What are the main symptoms of motor neurone disease?
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75% of cases affect spinal nerves (as opposed to cranial nerves) Spinal form of MS- symptoms may include: IN the arms- difficulty with fine motor skills eg buttoning a shirt, writing. In the legs: frequent stumbling. Both sides may be affected with one side more than the other. Fatigue, cramping. stiffness, and weakness move proximally up the limb to trunk breathing muscles. 25% of cases affect cranial nerves. Called the bulbar form of MS. Present as difficulty with speech, swallowing, or motor control of tongue, extreme and rapid mood swings. May also be spasticity, exaggerated reflexes, weakness, atrophy, camps, twitching. Although sensory neurons not affected, spasms, and gravity may result in pain.
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What is Epilepsy?
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a neurological disorder marked by sudden recurrent episodes of sensory disturbance, loss of consciousness, or convulsions, associated with abnormal electrical activity in the brain.
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What is neuralgia and what causes it?
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Simply, it is pain without stimulation of pain receptor. An intense pain caused by irritation or/or damage to a nerve. From infection, disease, inflammation, compression or physical irritation of a nerve. Can be triggered from many things like tooth decay, herpes, etc. Pain is felt in the area that is supplied by the irritated nerve.
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What happens in an epileptic fit?
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Neurones in the brain are disrupted causing seizures. Symptoms of seizure vary as the disrupting of electrical signalling in the brain, causing the body and brain to o abnormal things. Some people slip into a trance like state. While other people black/pass out and others convulse. 3 types of epilepsy, 1- symptomatic when the symptoms are due to damage to the brain. 2 cryptogenic where no evidence of damage to the brain can be seen, but other symptoms indicate/suggest that damage to the brain has happened. 3 Idiopathic- where no obvious cause can be found.
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