Biology: Endocrine, Nervous, & Excretory Systems

Front 1

Define:
1) Endocrine
2) Exocrine
3) Autocrine
4) Paracrine

Back 1

1) Hormones released, no duct, acts long distances
2) Non-hormone secretions into ducts (ex. sweat gland)
3) Local chemicals, acts short distance on themselves
4) Local chemicals, act short distances on other cells

Front 2

What are the 7 hormones released from the hypothalamus? Functions?

Back 2

1) GnRH - stimulates release of FSH & LH
2) CRH - stimulate ACTH release
3) TRH - stimulates TSH
4) Dopamine - inhibits prolactin release
5) GHRH - stimulates GH release
6) Oxytocin - stimulates contractions & milk secretion
7) ADH (vasopressin) - causes H2O reabsorption from kidneys

Front 3

What are 9 things released or stored in the pituitary? Functions?

Back 3

1) FSH -stimulates follicular maturity & sperm production
2) LH - LH surge triggers ovulation, stimulates testis to produce testosterone
3) ACTH - Stimulates adrenal gland to release glucocorticoids (aldosterone) and mineralcorticoids (cortisol)
4) TSH - stimulates thyroid-->release thyroid hormones
5) Prolactin - stimulates breast -->milk production
6) Endorphins
7) GH - stimulates growth
8) Oxytocin (stored) - stimulates uterine contractions during labor and milk production
9) ADH (stored) - stimulates H2O reabsorption from kidneys

Front 4

1) Function of pineal gland
2) Function of thyroid hormones
3) Function of calcitonin

Back 4

1) Makes melatonin (makes you sleepy)
2) Increase metabolism, requires Iodine
3) Lowers Ca2+ levels in blood by bone reabsorption

Front 5

1) Function of PTH
2) Function of the thymus
3) What are 5 things released from the adrenal gland?

Back 5

1) Increases Ca2+ levels in blood through bone resorption
2) Produces T cells
3) NE/Epi - fight or flight response, glucocorticoids (cortisol) - increase blood sugar, mineralcorticoids (aldosterone) - Increase Na+ & H2Oreabsorption, androgens - produce testosterone

Front 6

1) What does the pancreas secrete? Their function?
2) What do the ovaries produce?
3) What do the testis produce?

Back 6

1) Releases glucagon (glycogen-->glucose) & insulin (glucose-->glycogen)
2) Makes estrogen and progesterone (small amt of testosterone)
3) Makes testosterone

Front 7

Explain Diabetes mellitus

Back 7

-No insulin made, or no insulin receptors
-High blood glucose b/c glucose can't enter cells
-Cell starved of sugar, leads to fatty acid metabolism producing ketone bodies ---> ketoacidosis
-Sugar in urine, leading to more H2O in urine due to osmosis

Front 8

Explain:
1) Hypothyroidism
2) Hyperthyroidism
3) Acromegaly

Back 8

1) Low metabolism, If disease is caused by low Iodine, then goiter develops from accumulation of thyroid hormone precursor lacking Iodine
2) High metabolism
3) Excess GH in adults, disproportioned areas of body

Front 9

1) Most hormones are made of?
2) Steroids are derived from?

Back 9

1) Amino acid derivatives
2) Cholesterol

Front 10

Describe the cAMP pathway mechanism

Back 10

-Amino acid hormone binds membrane receptor.
-G protein activated.
-Adenylate cyclase activated.
-cAMP made.
-Protein kinase cascade.

Front 11

Describe the phospholipid pathway mechanism

Back 11

-Amino acid hormone binds membrane receptor.
-G protein activated.
-Phospholipase C activated.
-Membrane phospholipid split into DAG and IP3.
-DAG triggers protein kinase cascade.
-IP3 releases Ca2+ from the ER.

Front 12

Describe the steroid pathway mechanism

Back 12

-Steroid hormone (and thyroid hormone even though it's amino acid based) goes inside the cell.
-Hormone binds receptor inside the cell (cytoplasm or nucleus).
-Hormone-receptor complex (transcription factor) turns certain genes on inside the nucleus.

Front 13

1) How are hormones specific?
2) Describe the reflex arc

Back 13

1) The target cells either have receptors or they don't & they can up or downregulate the receptors they express
2) Stimulus --> sensory neuron-->integration center-->motor neuron-->effector

Front 14

1) Difference b/t monosynaptic and polysynaptic?
2) Which receptors are close to the surface of the skin? Which receptors are deeper?
-touch, pain, pressure, heat

Back 14

1) Mono - no interneuron, Poly - interneuron present
2) Close - touch, heat, pain/Deep - pressure

Front 15

1) What is a proprioceptor?
2) What do mechanoreceptors sense?
3) What do chemoreceptors sense?

Back 15

1) sense the position of a body part, located in muscle and connective tissue
2) Touch, pressure
3) Taste, smell

Front 16

Describe how smell passes through the nasal canal

Back 16

-Chemicals enter the nose via nostrils.
-Gets into the nasal cavity.
-Trapped in the mucus on top of the nasal cavity.
-Picked up by the membrane receptors on cilia (non-mobile, but they increase the surface area) of the olfactory receptor cell.
-Causes cell depolarization, and subsequent transduction of signal to the brain.

Front 17

Describe how we taste (basic description)

Back 17

-Chemicals dissolve in saliva.
-Carried inside taste bud
-Hair-like microvilli of taste cells inside taste bud picks up chemicals.
-Releases neurotransmitters to send signal to brain.

Front 18

Describe the mechanisms of hearing

Back 18

-Sound enters ear.
-Hits ear drum (tympanic membrane)
-Malleus (hammer) → Incus (anvil) → Stapes (stirrup)
-Vibrates fluid in Cochlea.
-Transmits to fluid in Cochlea.
-Cochlear hair cells excited by vibrations, and sends signal to brain.

Front 19

Hearing
1) What are three ear bones?
2) What is the vestibule in the ear?
3) What is the function of the semicircular canals?
4) What cells do cochlea house?

Back 19

1) Malleus, Incus, & Stapes
2) contacts the oval window (where stirrup vibrates), is continuous with semicircular canals and cochlea.
3) Sense position & head mvmt, helps w/balance
4) It houses hair cells

Front 20

Explain how we process images

Back 20

-Light first travels through the cornea
-Through the pupil (hole in the iris muscle)
-The lens of the eye, just like a convex lens in physics, forms a real image on the retina.
-Real images are inverted.
-The brain processes this inverted image to make it seem upright in your mind.
-The brain combines the two images from each eye to make a 3D image, from which you can judge distance.
-Another reason for combining the two images from both eyes is that it gets rid of the blind spot in each eye.

Front 21

1) Where are photoreceptor cells located?
2) Which is more sensitive, rods or cones?
3) What is Rhodopsin?

Back 21

1) On the back of the retina
2) Rods
3) Rhodopsin = chemical responsible for light reception = Retinal (chemical) + Opsin (transmembrane protein)

Front 22

1) What converts cis-retinal --> trans-retinal?
2) What is the function of this conformed trans-retinal?
3) Where are the photoreceptors located?
4) What is the function of the lens?

Back 22

1) Light
2) trans-retinal then causes hyperpolarization of photoreceptor cell, which prompts the chain of events that sends signal to the brain.
3) Retina
4) Focuses light on the retina

Front 23

What happens when your BP is too low?

Back 23

RAAS pathway: Renin released, ANG1 & ANG2, aldosterone (mineralcorticoid) released - causes distal tubules to reabsorb more Na+, causing H2O reabsorption
-ADH released to cause more H2O reabsorption in the kidney tubules

Front 24

1) Do high levels of ADH cause vasoconstriction or vasodilation?
2) What do your juxtaglomerular cells release?

Back 24

1) Vasoconstriction
2) Renin from the kidney

Front 25

What happens if your BP is too high?

Back 25

Renin, Aldosterone, and ADH stop releasing. And the heart can release ANP (atrial natriuretic peptide which antagonizes aldosterone and causes the kidney to excrete more Na+ and water). ANP can also cause vasodilation

Front 26

1) Aldosterone: reabsorb ___(a)__, pee out __(b)__
2) Calcium and phosphate are regulated by _________
3) What are the two buffer systems and where are they located?

Back 26

1) (a) Na+, (b) K+
2) PTH
3) Bicarbonate buffer system (blood and ECF)
Phosphate buffer system (inside cells)

Front 27

1) Describe the bicarbonate buffer system. When is it more acidic? more basic?
2) Function of PCT?

Back 27

1) CO2 + H2O <---> H2CO3 <---> H+ + HCO3-
Breathing out CO2 and reabsorbing HCO3- decreases acidity; peeing out the bicarbonate ion (HCO3-) increases acidity
2) Main site of reabsorption (nutrients, salts, and water) and secretion (except for K+, the secretion of which is the job of distal convoluted tubule in response to aldosterone).

Front 28

1) Function of descending loop of henle?
2) Function of ascending loop of henle?
3) Function of the DCT?

Back 28

1) Absorbs water
2) Salt reabsorption (not permeable to water)
3) Fines tunes work done by the proximal tubule - reabsorption of salts and water. Aldosterone-controlled secretion of K+

Front 29

1) What kind of pressure powers glomerular filtration?
2) In glomerular filtrate, what is considered the "bad stuff" that is peed out?
3) If ADH is present, the collecting duct ___(a)___ to __(b)__
4) How is the collecting duct able to reabsorb water after stimulated by ADH?

Back 29

1) Hydrostatic pressure
2) Urea (creatinine, NH4+, and organic acids)
3) (a) reabsorbs water (b) concentrate urine
4) The surrounding environment is very concentrated

Front 30

1) What does the Countercurrent multiplier do?
2) What drives the creation of this gradient?
3) What's countercurrent?
4) What's multiplier?

Back 30

1) It creates an osmotic gradient down the loop of Henle, which is used by the collecting duct to concentrate urine.
2) NaCl pump on ascending limb.
3) Descending limb: water flow out of filtrate, impermeable to salt. Ascending limb: salt flow out of filtrate, impermeable to water.
4) The gradient-producing power of each individual NaCl pump multiplies down the length of the loop of Henle. Longer the loop of Henle, greater the osmotic gradient, more concentrated urine can be produced.

Front 31

What is urea recycling?

Back 31

Urea at the bottom of collecting duct leaks out into the interstitial fluid and back into the filtrate. Contributes to the high osmolarity at the bottom of the loop of Henle.

Front 32

1) Collecting ducts drain into the _____________
2) Ureters drain into the ____________
3) Urine gets peed out of the bladder through the ______
4) What is the special type of epithelium that the bladder has to accommodate storing large amts of urine?

Back 32

1) Ureter
2) Bladder
3) Urethra
4) Transitional epithelium