Models

Front 1

Exposure theories -

Back 1

all humans are at risk of becoming addicted to drugs given sufficient exposure, because drugs interact with and change the brain in such a way as to create continued motivation to use the drug.

Front 2

Adaptive theories

Back 2

claim that only certain individuals are at risk of becoming addicted because they have a particular vulnerability (addictive personality) that allows drugs to generate addiction behaviour more readily.

Front 3

Wikler 1965

Back 3

Physically agonising withdrawal is a significant barrier to quitting/abstinence. Addicts continue to use the drug in order to avoid withdrawal.Negative reinforcement (the drug acts like a painkillers). The experience of aversive withdrawal is more motivating to take the drug than is the pleasurable experience of the high.

Front 4

why relapse

Back 4

Anecdotal reports from drug addicts who had relapsed suggested that what caused them to relapse was the immediate possibility to purchase the drug (i.e. bumped into dealer), or the proximity of contexts in which drug use had previously taken place (i.e. hanging out at the shooting gallery with old mates), not, as predicted, by contexts in which withdrawal had occurred most frequently (i.e. bedroom).

Front 5

Siegel et al (1982)

Back 5

High heroin dose given to heroin tolerant rats
Environment Deaths (%)
Novel 96
Usual 64

Demonstrates that environmental cues associated with drug taking (not the later withdrawal effect) come to elicit a drug opposite response (escalating dose).

This drug opposite response may be aversive, and motivate drug taking to alleviate this state (negative reinforcement).

Front 6

One problem for negative reinforcement theories

Back 6

(the idea that drugs are taken to avoid the aversive states produced by drugs) is that animals and humans rapidly learn to obtain drugs, in exactly the same way that they learn to obtain natural rewards such as food, water and access to a sexual partner.

Front 7

Another problem for negative reinforcement theory -consumption

Back 7

is that drug cues motivate drug consumption and are rated as pleasant, rather than aversive.
These data are consistent with the idea that drug cues prime drug taking by reminding the addict of the positive appetitive qualities of the drug (not by eliciting an aversive state).

Front 8

age of drug use

Back 8

Drug use almost always begins in adolescence

Front 9

Demographic and psychosocial factors for the initiation of drug use in adolescence-14

Back 9

Drug availability in local area,
Neighbourhood disorganisation (density, permanence, crime rate) Prevalence of drug use in local area, Social norms of peer group, Criminality in family
Parental socioeconomic status
Poor parenting style (abuse, negative communication, authoritativeness, inconsistency)
Mental health of parents
Broken home, Parent-child attachment Parent/sibling drug use, Parental/sibling attitude to drug use, Failure at school

Front 10

Tarter et al (2003)

Back 10

which 12 year old children of drug or alcohol dependent parents had their personality, temperament and cognitive capabilities measured. These so called “high risk” children were compared to low risk children who were matched apart from not being from drug/alcohol dependent parents.

Front 11

tarter et al (2003)-assessed later

Back 11

Then, at age 16 and 19 these groups were assessed for drug use.One cardinal personality trait called neurobehavioral dysregulation was greater in the high than low risk group, and predicted the magnitude of drug use (transition to abuse?).

Front 12

tarter et al (2003)-neurobehavioural dysregulation-7

Back 12

This trait was a composite score of: Difficult Temperament (inflexibility and high distractibility)
Conduct disorder
Oppositional defiant disorder
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
Depression
Disruptive Behavior Disorders Rating Scale (teacher)
A battery of tests measuring executive cognitive function

Front 13

tarter et al (2003)-conclusion

Back 13

Conclusion: Those at risk of drug use/abuse, show disorganised behaviour, which may stem from an abnormality in the frontal cortex causing poor decision making.

Front 14

risky decision

Back 14

Risky decision making was seen in the high risk children before the onset of drug use, and this trait predicted the onset and magnitude of drug use, demonstrating that risky decision making is a vulnerability factor for becoming a drug user.
However, the consumption of drugs of abuse causes damage to the frontal cortex and produces deficits in decision making, suggesting a vicious circle, where an existing frontal deficit is exacerbated by drug use.

Front 15

Franken et al. (2007)

Back 15

used an event related potential (ERP) design to measure the responses of cocaine addicts to errors in their performance.

Front 16

disposition tolerance/metabolic

Back 16

repeated drug use reduces the amount of drug available at target tissue. cigarette smoke, anabolic steroids

Front 17

pharmodynamic tolerance

Back 17

most dramatic form. tolerance develops to the central actions of certain drugs cannot be explained by metabolism. nerve cell function compensate for continued presence of the drug. ethanol, amphetamine, caffeine and others.

Front 18

behavioural tolerance

Back 18

tolerance occurs in same environment as where the drug was administrated but tolerance not apparent in novel environment.

Front 19

behavioural tolerance-habituation

Back 19

simplest form of learning, learning not to response to a repetitive stimulus. ongoing exposure will alter the behaviour less and less.

Front 20

siegel

Back 20

tolerance is at least in part due to learning of an association between effects of a given drug and environmental cues that precede drug effects

Front 21

operant conditioning, leblanc

Back 21

alcohol administration to rats initially disrupted the performance of traversing a moving belt but repeated administrations had less and less effect.

Front 22

problem with leblanc

Back 22

improve of new skill with practice. second group- animals who had same number of alcohol treatments administered after practice sessions.

Front 23

state dependency

Back 23

drug become part of environmental 'set'-alcoholic only remembers where he left his binge supply once drunk.

Front 24

sensitization-reverse tolerance

Back 24

enhancement of drug effects following repeat administration.cocaine and amphetamines-> tolerance and sensitization

Front 25

post and weiss

Back 25

chronic administration of higher doses of cocaine has also shown to produce an increased susceptibility to cocaine-induced catalepsy in which animal remains abnormal or distorted postures for prolonged intervals as well as hyperthermia and convulsions.

Front 26

National Survey on Drug Use and Health-2002-america

Back 26

19.5 million (8.3%) use of one illicit drug-50% of this being Marijuana. 16-25 peaks.

Front 27

physical dependence -model of addiction

Back 27

initial drug use-repeated drug use-physical dependence-attempts at abstinence-withdrawal symptoms, relapse (can go back to abstinence)

Front 28

physical dependence model advocate

Back 28

wikler.

Front 29

critiques of physical model

Back 29

not all drugs have physical dependence. doesnt show how become physically dependent. doesnt explain relapse after drug detoxification.

Front 30

weeks and collins

Back 30

compared breaking points for a range of morphine doses in rats, as dose of morphine was increased, the breaking point also rose by a large amount.

Front 31

positive reinforcement model

Back 31

initial drug use, euphoria (+ve reinforcement), repeated drug use, attempts at abstinence, compulsive desire to re-experience drug induced euphoria-relapse.

Front 32

critique of positive reinforcement

Back 32

how come negative reinforcement does not counteract. because short term bursts over long term consequences. doesnt explain why some become addicted and others dont.

Front 33

terry robinson and kent berridge

Back 33

proposed incentive-sensitization model

Front 34

incentive-sensitization model

Back 34

distinguishes between drug liking and drug craving.

Front 35

koob and le moal

Back 35

modified version of opponant-process model designed to account more specifically for the progression of affective changes that occur during the development of a drug addiction.