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26 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Bacteriophage vs Virus
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All phages are viruses, but not all viruses are phages. Phages infect Virus
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Structure of bacteriophage
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Nucleic Acid: Double stranded DNA OR RNA.
Single stranded DNA or RNA, positive strands are mRNA, but negative strands are not mRNA. RNA replicase uses negative strands to replicate to a + strand Capsid: consists of proteins, made from the host cell |
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Early Gene functions
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cell machinery takeover
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Middle Gene Function
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Nucleic Acid replication: making many new copies of the phage, DNA or RNA
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Late gene functions
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Assembly of capsid
packaging of nucleic Acid Lysis of Cell: release new viral particles |
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Lytic period of Phages
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Assembly of capsids
Packaging of nucleic Acid Lysis of the cell: release new viral particles |
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Lambda phage(reproductive Cycle)
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Special kind of Lytic Phage
Ability to have dormant form Can inject DNA,95% will go into lytic process Remaining will go into alternative lysogenic cycle Enters cells chromosomes and remain there silently Phage When the phage is in its silent state Induction phage comes back the silent lysogenic state |
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Measuring the abundance of Bacteriophage
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Plaque assay
Take Petri dish and spread on the agar bacteria Evenly distribute on agar for even growth Spread the dilution of the suspension containing bacteriophage particles When phage is present, it lyses every cell in that region creating a clear spot (plaque) |
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Reproductive Cycle of Retrovirus
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Retrovirus
Single stranded RNA genome in eukaryotes Binds to the surgace of a host cell and releases the RNA into cytoplasm and also an enzyme called reverse transcriptase Reverse transcriptase: can take single stranded RNA as templeate to make a complement DNA strand and also make other one creating a double stranded DNA strands After strands are formed, double stranded DNA then enters the hosts nucleus and inserts itself into the chromosome, now called provirus It is then transcribed to create the single stranded RNA, which then encodes particles to form all of the proteins to make more retroviral particles. |
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Polyprotein
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Long protein produce from a long positive strand of RNA from a eukaryote, and then cut up by a protease which then becomes individual complement strands from replicating virus
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RNA replicase vs Reverse transcriptase
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Replicase: RNA strand template to make RNA
Transcriptase: RNA Template to make DNA |
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How do influenza virus undergo antigenic shift?
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Influenza is different because instead of a singular DNA molecule, it has 8 different RNA molecules, each encoding a different protein. one codes an N, the other an H.
H and N known as the spike proteins, which are the proteins that are exposed on the surface of a virus known as H and N antigens Among all the influenza strands, they all have different H proteins that are exposed on the surface of a virus known as H and N antigens. among all the influenza strands, they have different H and N proteins. addaptive immunity will not revognize the different proteins. hosts can get infected with 2 different strains of the virus and can combine different genes to express different combinations of surface antigens(antigenic Shift) |
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antigenic shift
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the different combinations that can be radically different changing tons of amino acid
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Viroids VS Prions
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Virus have a nucleic acid and protein
viroid only have nucleic acid(RNA), only happens to plants, and can never packaged in capsids Prion: move from one host to another only as protein. has no nucleic acid needed to be spread. when proteins become misfolded and into new cell, it binds to normal proteins, causing it to misfold and keeps happening like a chain reaction |
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Colonization vs infection
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Both signify the growth of microbes in the host
colonization= mutalism infection= disease causing |
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Disease
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set of negative effects due to growth of microbes in the host
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Pathogens
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Microbial parasites,
obligate pathogens, always in a host opportunistic pathogens, in the environment but can cause disease in a host |
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pathogenicity vs virulence
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pathogenicity: does bacteria cause disease? (y/n)
Virulence: how bad is the disease? |
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Benefits of microbes
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Normal microflora: competes with pathogens for space and nutrients, vitamins are produced (B, B12 and K), stimulates the immune system
Skin: gram + cocci, Staphylococcus Oral Cavity: upper respiratory tract, Gram + cocci, Streptococcus Lower respiratory tract: generally sterile, if not then youre out of luck with something like pneumonia Anaerobes can be present on the suface of the skin and oral cavities Lower Urethra: Gram - Upper urethra/bladder/ kidneys: sterile as long as you piss out the bacteria Gastrointestinal tract: Mouth: high oxygen content, neutral Ph stomach: helicobacter, ulcers and gastric cancer large intestines: bacteroides, most abundant E.coli: fecal mater Methanobrevibacter: rare archea Clostridium: biggest problem in hospitals in the US, largest # of hospitals infections due to strains picked up in hospitals that create more toxins and are antibiotic resistant. creates spores which are extremely difficult to kill most of the bacteria in the body is found within the small intestinal and colon area |
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Circulatory and lymphatic system
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Circulatory: delivers O2, nutrients and water throughout your body
Lymphatic: returns water from the tissue back to the central body and back into the bloodstream both provides the avenues of the cells of your immune system to move throughout your body |
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cells of the immune response
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Leukocytes: white blood cells.
Phagocytes: neutrophils, macrophages and dendritic cells, part of the innate immune system. knows what to look for Lymphocytes: T and B cells. part of the adaptive immune system(Learning). B cells: plasma cell and memory cells |
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Phagocytes
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Primary functions is to go out and recognize foreign material throughout the body, engulf them and try to kill them
recognition: surface receptors used that is going to recognize some repreating pattern on the surface of a bacterial cell PRR(Pattern Recognition Receptors) surface receptors, many types LPS (Lipopolysaccaride): only gram negative cell TLR4 (toll like receptors) TLR2: recognizes peptidolycan on gram + cells When phagocytes recognizes one of these things, undergoes phagocytosis(pulls cell into itself) uses phagolysozome to try to kill bacteria by undergoing respiratory burst. produces nitric oxide, hydrogen peroxide and hydroxyl radicals |
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adaptive immune system
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very high specificity, recognized very specific pathogens through antigens
has to show tolerance: be able to recognize what is foreign and not (self vs non-self) Memory: once it sees pathogens it will remember it and respond to it more quickly when exposed to it again antigen receptors: T cell receptors, surface of T cells B cell receptors, surface of B cells, antibodies MHC1: on every nucleated cell MHC2: on phagocutes and B cells Cytokines and chmokines Released from TH1 cells when they attach to a phagocytes through a foreign antifen and MHC2 Migration of immune cells Activation of immune cells leads to inflamation B cells: B cell receptors similar to antibodies Ability to bind foreign antigens Engulfed back into the cell through the B cell receptors and going to attach to its MHC2 TH2 cell binds to the MHC2, releasing a cytokine that goes back into the B cell as a signal Bcell differentiates into: plasma cells, short lived that release antibodies Memory cells, waiting for the specific virus to appear once again no matter how long it will remember and respond quicker than before |
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structure of the antibody
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2 heavy chains and 2 light chains, held together with disulfide bonds
constant regions, region of entire antibody Variable regions, end tips of the antibody |
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Primary vs secondary immune response
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how much antibody is produced within the blood when exposing someone to a particular antigen
appearance of antibodies that will bind to the antigen and clear it from the system (primary) when same antigen is injected again, a huge burst of antibodies are released(secondary). much faster and stronger antibody bind to the bacterial cells, and attracts the complements which then assemble into the membrane and make a pore causing lysis (opsonization) |
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antigen in vaccines
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killed bacteria or virus(polio,influenza )
attenuated bacteria/ virus(live) still able to infect and replicate to create an immune response but do not spread enough to cause a disease (TB, Mumps, measles, Polio) Toxoids: inactive toxin proteins produce antigens/ antibodies (anthrax and tetanus vaccines) Recombinant protein vaccines HPV vaccines |
