Metaphysics Final

Front 1

Define: Morphe

Back 1

Formal Cause – Physical form of the object

Front 2

Define: Telos

Back 2

Final Cause – Reason for existence

Front 3

Define: Hule

Back 3

Material Cause – Composition of object

Front 4

Define: Kinesis

Back 4

Efficient Cause – Who made this?

Front 5

Define: On/Ontology

Back 5

Being // The study of Being

Front 6

Define: Episteme / Epistemology

Back 6

Knowledge / The study of Knowledge

Front 7

Define: Nous

Back 7

Intellect/Intelligence

Front 8

Define: Dianoia

Back 8

Discursive Thought (Shapes, numbers)

Front 9

Noesis

Back 9

Understanding

Front 10

Paideia

Back 10

Education

Front 11

Apaideia

Back 11

Ignorance

Front 12

Periagoge

Back 12

Metaphorical "turning around," conversion

Front 13

Eidos

Back 13

Set of universal properties (forms)

Front 14

Paradeigma (en phuse)

Back 14

Patterns or models (in nature)

Front 15

Aitia

Back 15

Cause (Aristotle)

Front 16

Define: Ta meta, ta Physica

Back 16

"The Book After the Physics" // Metaphysics

Front 17

Define: Philo sophia

Back 17

Philosophy (Love of wisdom)

Front 18

Greek Philosophers are tied together because of what trait?

Back 18

Language

Front 19

Define: Etymology

Back 19

The study of Language

Front 20

Define: Interlocutor

Back 20

Conversant

Front 21

What main problems do the Republic and The Divided Line tackle?

Back 21

The ideal political system, justice, and proper rulers (guardians)

Front 22

Define: Polis

Back 22

City–state

Front 23

Name the two realms of The Divided Line

Back 23

The Intelligible, Abstract world and the Sensible, Visible world

Front 24

Define: Genesis

Back 24

Beginning

Front 25

Define: Aisthesis

Back 25

Sense perception (Aesthetics)

Front 26

Define the 4 aspects of the Ontological side of the Divided Line and their Epistemological counterparts

Back 26

Paintings, mirror reflections // Imaginations (eikasia)


Physical Objects // Beliefs (pistis) (Unjustified truths)


Symbols, numbers, shapes, letters // Thought (Dianoia) (Discursive Thought)


Forms (Idea, Eidos) // Understanding (Noesis) (The thing itself)

Front 27

Explain the difference between Plato's definition of particulars and universals

Back 27

Particulars – instantiations of the universal (the Mona Lisa as opposed to the idea of a painting itself)


Forms – Everlasting object that is a model in which all particulars modeled after it must take place (Dog itself, beauty itself)

Front 28

What does Plato use to represent "The Good" in the material world? Why?

Back 28

The Sun. Plato explains as the Sun allows man to see things by illuminating them and making them visible, the Good brings concepts to light and makes them visible to man

Front 29

What does it mean when forms are defined as "One over many?"

Back 29

There are many instances, but only one ideal form which encompasses them.

Front 30

How is the Divided Line, divided? Explain.

Back 30

Becoming (Genesis) and Being (On)


The material world is always "in flux," or a state of becoming; it is never constant and always changes, while the opposite is true for the intelligible world.

Front 31

Define: Platanism

Back 31

The idea that the real realm of "true" being lies outside of the physical realm (An intelligible realm exists)

Front 32

Give an example of Pistis.

Back 32

Heliocentrism vs. Geocentrism
Propaganda
False presentation of information

Front 33

What is the significance of the concept of "conversion" in Plato's Republic? How does it pertain to paideia?

Back 33

The concept of conversion in Plato's Republic concerns itself with creating an ideal society and spreading happiness to all of its citizens; in order to do this, paideia, or education, is necessary. Plato's idea is that philosophers who are educated and are enlightened are meant to share their enlightenment with the common people, living in darkness. To do so successfully, they must metaphorically descend into the darkness, where the common people reside, and compel them to ascend and see the truth (to wake up, instead of dream). In this way, they become Philosopher Kings, and are tasked with governing society, as they are the ones least eager to do so.

Front 34

Give a brief summary of The Allegory of the Cave.

Back 34

The Allegory of the Cave begins with prisoners shackled by their arms, legs, and head. They are in a cave, with a stage, a fire, and a staircase leading upwards with little light shining through. The fire is between the prisoners and a pathway behind them, where people hold up figures of things (once removed; stuffed animal, doll, etc). The objects cast a shadow onto a stage wall of sorts, where the prisoners can only see those (twice removed, shadow of a fake object). One of the prisoners is released, and they eventually see the staircase, ascend, and realize that all they have known is a lie. They are compelled to go down out of obligation to the other prisoners to tell them the truth, but are ridiculed and threatened.

Front 35

What is the primary subject matter of the Allegory of the Cave? What does it have to do with us?

Back 35

The Allegory of the Cave is a symbolic story that represents Plato's Divided Line in action, and the human condition. The Prisoners in the story represent us, the common people, who are unable to see the truth in things. We are meant to experience a periagoge, or metaphorical conversion, in which we realize that the shadows cast in front of us are only illusions (propaganda, misleading information, etc).

Front 36

What is one counterargument that Parmenides makes to Socrates' theory of forms in the Parmenides dialogue? Explain.

Back 36

One of Parmenides' counterarguments to Socrates' theory of Forms is The Third Large argument; this argument targets the idea that forms are an object that exists in the intelligible realm.

Parmenides begins by saying there is a set of objects that exist, {A, B, C}. These objects all have a quality, largeness (L1), which makes them large. However, by participating, largeness itself must be an object in the set, as it is large; this means a new set is made, {A, B, C, L1}. Again, a quality must be shared with all of them, making another object which needs to be included in the set. Repeat ad infinitum.

Front 37

What logical fallacy does Parmenides' Third Large argument highlight in Socrates' thinking?

Back 37

Infinite Regression

Front 38

Define: Mereology

Back 38

The study of parts in its relation to the whoe

Front 39

What is one significant way in which the ontology of Aristotle differs from his teacher, Plato? Explain.

Back 39

While Aristotle and Plato both have some form of basis on the existence of particulars and universals, their thinking is somewhat reversed. Plato places significance on the form, the ideal object which contains properties in which all instances of it must take place; Aristotle places emphasis on the particular, the physical world in which an individual can examine a specific object. Because of this, he labels the particular as the primary substance and the universal as the secondary substance.

Front 40

Define: Categoreyo

Back 40

To predicate, to classify

Front 41

List Aristotle's Ten Categories.

Back 41

QPQ TAPPERS


Quality, Position, Quantity, Time, Activity, Passivity, Place, Equipment, Relation, Substance

Front 42

From what do all other categories depend on for existence?

Back 42

Substance – Without it, no other category can exist

Front 43

Define a Primary and a Secondary substance.

Back 43

Primary Substance – Particular
Secondary Substance – Universal


Brian is a person.

Front 44

Explain the rationale behind Secondary Substance classification. Give examples.

Back 44

Secondary substances are split into a binary of species and genus. Species are more informative and closer to the primary substance, while genus are more general.


Ex. Canine, Mammal, Animal.


In relation to Mammal, canine is the species and mammal is the genus. (All canine are mammals, not all mammals are canine.)


In relation to animal, mammal is the species and animal is the genus. (All mammals are animals, not all animals are mammals.)

Front 45

What does it mean when it is said that Primary Substances can receive contraries?

Back 45

It means that they can be contradictory at any point in time; for example, a person can be bald, then not, or one place, then not.

Front 46

Explain the Ontology of Predication.

Back 46

Said of, but not present in (secondary substance)


Neither said of nor present in (individual substance)


\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\


said of and present in (universal non–substance) (good, rational) (adjectives)


Not said of, but present in (individual non–substance) (my knowledge of philosophy, this shade of red) (definition does not apply to the whole person)

Front 47

Define: Pros hen

Back 47

Towards one (towards the substance)

Front 48

What are some of Aristotles' arguments against Plato's theory of Forms?

Back 48

– The Third Man Argument (same as the third large)


– Violations of Occam's Razor (The idea that if there are two ways to explain something, the simpler explanation is better)


– Unnecessary multiplication of entities


– The idea that forms of negation exist

Front 49

Define: Hylomorphism

Back 49

The idea that physical objects are created from matter (Hule) and form (Morphe)

Front 50

Give an example of Aristotles' Four Causes with the subject being an Axe.

Back 50

Morphe (Formal Cause) – Long handle, large sharp blade at end


Telos (Final Cause) – Chop trees, wood, use as weapon


Kinesis (Efficient Cause) – Blacksmith, manufacturer


Hule (Material Cause) – Wood, Steel, Copper, whatever metal the axe blade is made of

Front 51

Define and explain Aristotles' 3 Modes of Substance.

Back 51

Potentiality – Potential to come to something (Ex. axe with a dull blade)


First actuality – Coming to be (Ex. Axe with a sharp blade, but not in use at the moment)


Second actuality – Full actuality (Axe in use to cut wood, chop trees)

Front 52

List an advantage of Plato's Theory of Forms.

Back 52

Forms allow for objective norms, meaning there would be objective qualities for things that often are interpreted subjectively. (Example: Justice, Good)

Front 53

After the Third Large argument, what does Socrates suggest? Why is it wrong?

Back 53

Socrates suggests that forms are merely ideas; Parmenides refutes this by explaining that an idea cannot be simply thought of, as there must be a material object to base that thought off of. For example, one cannot think of beauty itself, but thinks of things that are beautiful. Additionally, it would imply that particulars are also ideas, and are therefore participating in thinking.

Front 54

Explain Socrate's assertion that forms are "Paradeigmata en Phuse."

Back 54

Paradegimata en Phuse – Patterns in Nature


Socrates attempts to explain forms by calling them patterns in nature; by this, he means that the particulars do not participate in the idea, but rather model themselves after it, such as an image or likeness of the form.

Front 55

Define: Hemera

Back 55

The day

Front 56

Explain Parmenide's Sail analogy.

Back 56

Parmenides attempts to get to the root of Socrates' thinking; to do so, he asks Socrates how the particular relates to the ideal. One of the questions he asks is in the form of an analogy concerning a sail and people; the sail acts as the ideal, and the people are the particulars. If the sail covers the people, is a different part of the sail over each person, or is the whole sail over all? Socrates posits that a different part is over each person, and Parmenides refutes this by explaining that the form is divided and that only a part of the form could exist in each particular.

Front 57

Define: Cogito

Back 57

Establishing the existence of a being from the fact that it thinks or is aware

Front 58

Define: Helios

Back 58

The Sun

Front 59

Define: Geos

Back 59

The Earth

Front 60

Define: Scientia

Back 60

Knowledge

Front 61

Define: Tabula Rasa

Back 61

Blank Slate

Front 62

Define: Ratio

Back 62

Reason

Front 63

Define: Corpus

Back 63

Body

Front 64

Res Cogitans

Back 64

I am a thinking thing

Front 65

Cogito, ergo Sum

Back 65

I think, therefore I am

Front 66

Mens

Back 66

mind (intentionality)

Front 67

Substantia

Back 67

Standing under, upholding

Front 68

Substratum

Back 68

Foundation

Front 69

How does cogito ergo sum serve as the foundation for Descartes' first indubitable belief?

Back 69

I think, therefore I am. If there is an Evil Genius that exists to deceive , he cannot deceive Descarte’s belief in his own existence; to doubt is to think, therefore he is a thinking thing.

Front 70

What point about human cognition does Descartes highlight in discussing the diverse ways in which we think about different shapes e.g. the triangle and the chiliagon in Meditation Six?

Back 70

One point he makes about human cognition is the distinction between understanding and imagination; to create a mental image of a shape in your mind is imagination. He uses shapes to explain; One can understand a shape that has 3 sides or 1,000; however, one can imagine the shape of a triangle, but not accurately imagine the shape of a chiliagon. Because of this, he believes that understanding is a process of looking inwards to the mind, while imagining is a process of looking outwards to the body.

Front 71

Why is Locke skeptical of substance? At the same time, why does he have difficulty abandoning the concept completely?

Back 71

Locke is skeptical of substance in that it is something that cannot be clearly defined by human senses alone; going by Hobbe’s Theory of Meaning, any word that is in use represents a thought whose conceptual context points to some sense experience, and any word that fails to do so is an empty word that has little contextual meaning. Locke’s belief in an atomic theory of substance means that the substance which we see is an aggregate of secondary qualities which are not intrinsically part of the object in question, but rather operations of the primary qualities on our senses. By taking this stance, he is skeptical of the idea of substance in how we understand it, as he believes that we cannot truly explain what substance is, but rather how it acts upon us.

Front 72

What is Kant’s assessment of the field of metaphysics? Why? Explain?

Back 72

Kant’s assessment of metaphysics is that it was enduring, but failed, enterprise. He believes this because he asserts that reason will forever pose questions that cannot be answered, as they go beyond the bounds of experience (Ex. Does God exist?)

Front 73

Why does Kant believe that his discovery of synthetic a priori truths is of such significance for the scientific revolution and the history of thought in general?

Back 73

Kant believes that synthetic a priori truths are of such significance because they can explain mathematical concepts. For example, defining a straight line as the shortest distance between two points, rather than by its characteristics, helps to create new “truths” which can be discovered.

Front 74

A priori

Back 74

Knowledge independent of experience; can be explained by reason alone

Front 75

A posteriori

Back 75

Knowledge that depends on experience to be validated

Front 76

Synthetic

Back 76

The predicate adds something new to the concept

Front 77

Analytic

Back 77

The predicate does not add anything new to the concept

Front 78

Give an example of synthetic a priori

Back 78

A straight line is the shortest distance between two points

Front 79

Give an example of analytic a priori

Back 79

A planet is a natural satellite

Front 80

Give an example of synthetic a posteriori

Back 80

Mars has frozen water

Front 81

What are Kant's two stems of cognition?

Back 81

Sensibility – Matter, experience
Understanding – Form, concepts


Concepts are empty without experience, and experience is empty without concepts

Front 82

Explain the Corpuscular/Atomic Theory of Knowledge

Back 82

Based on an analogy of the body/atomic theory of matter; the real world is the microscopic world that we cannot perceive with human eyes alone. Atoms = simple ideas

Front 83

Simple Idea

Back 83

That which has no further component parts

Front 84

Complex Idea

Back 84

Combination of simple ideas in a single experience

Front 85

Primary Quality

Back 85

Intrinsic, inseparable from the object or thing itself (figure, extension, number)

Front 86

Secondary Quality

Back 86

The effect which qualities produce on our senses (color, sound)

Front 87

Resemblance theory of Perception

Back 87

We perceive only our own ideas, we perceive external objects through the intermediary of ideas, explaining mistakes in perception

Front 88

Both Locke and Descartes apply some form of skepticism in their philosophical methodology. Explain one similarity and one difference in their reasons for using skepticism.

Back 88

In using skepticism as an application in their methodology, both Locke and Descartes allow for an explanation in mistakes in perception; Locke believes that we perceive external objects through the intermediary of ideas, while Descartes believes in the possibility of an Evil Genius. Their reasons for using them are inherently different; Descartes goes on to use skepticism to create a new foundation on which the existence of a benevolent God is of high importance, while Locke attempts to explain the true qualities of nature.

Front 89

Summarize Descartes' wax example

Back 89

Wax can be identified by using the senses; however, even after it loses all previous qualities when placed near a fire, we are still able to identify it as wax. This is because of the fact that the wax was not the qualities it had, but a body that manifested itself to us. The identification of the wax is on the inspection of the part of the mind only.

Front 90

In Plato's Divided Line, what is the most sophisticated cognitive capacity? What is the least? What objects correspond to each? What are the two main divisions in the Divided Line?

Back 90

The most sophisticated cognitive capacity: Eidos (The Forms)

The least sophisticated capacity: Eikasia (The imaginations)

The two main divisions in the Divided Line fall between the epistemological and ontological realms, as well as the abstract, intelligible world and the real, sensible world

Front 91

The focus of the relevant section of Plato's Parmenides is the relationship between forms and particulars. What is ONE of the two ways in which Socrates understands this relationship? Explain.

Back 91

One of the ways Socrates understands the relationship in Parmenides is that forms are "Paradeigmata en Phuse" or patterns in nature. What he means by this is that the form is an ideal, and the particulars are images or likenesses of the model; for example, a blueprint used to create multiple houses.

Front 92

According to Aristotle what is a category? Why does he think particulars are primary? Name three of his ten categories and give an example of each.

Back 92

Aristotle defines a category as a classification of of being. He has ten categories; QPQTAPPERS. Quality, Passivity, Quantity, Time, Activity, Place, Position, Equipment, Relativity, Substance.

He thinks that particular substances are primary substances because they are more informative; particular substances reference specific things which can be talked of specifically, while secondary, universal substances describe something in a more general way.

Front 93

According to Plato what is a form? Why does he argue for their existence?

Back 93

According to Plato, a form is an everlasting object that is a model in which all particulars modeled after it must take place. He argues for their existence because he believes the material world is constantly in flux, changing and morphing. The existence of an abstact, intelligible realm only accessible through the mind allows for objective thought to occur, both in objects and virtues.

Front 94

What does Aristotle mean by hylomorphism? Aristotle identifies four causes. What are they and how do they apply to a table?

Back 94

Hylomorphism - The identification of substances through matter and form

Telos - End/Final Cause (To be eaten upon, have things on top of it)

Kinesis - Efficient Cause (Carpenters, manufacturers)

Morphe - Formal Cause (Four legs, flat surface)

Hule - (Wood, plastic, etc.)

Front 95

What is rationalism? Why is Descartes so committed to it as the basis for his epistemology? Why does he think it's true?

Back 95

Rationalism is defined as an antithesis to empiricism; it is the idea that the acquisition of knowledge is attained through reason, independent of sense perception. Descartes is an avid proponent of rationalism due to his Meditations, in which he attempts to build a new foundation for the acquisition of knowledge. As a skeptic, he believed that there was the possibility that all he held to be true was false due to the existence of an Evil Genius that deceived him whenever possible, even when concerning his own senses. For this reason, he discounts his own body, adopting a stance of substance dualism, where the mind is separate from the body.

Front 96

How does Descartes arrive at the conclusion that thinking is his foundation for true knowledge (as opposed to seeing or doing)? From a Cartesian perspective, what does it mean to say that objectivity is grounded in subjectivity?

Back 96

Descartes believes in the possibility that there exists an Evil Genius, whose goal is to deceive him whenever possible. Because of this, Descartes cannot trust even his own senses; the only truly affirmative belief is that he exists, as the Evil Genius cannot make him doubt that; for to doubt is to think, and to think is to exist (cogito, ergo sum). From a cartesian perspective, objectivity is grounded in subjectivity in that

Front 97

Why does Locke defend an empiricist epistemology? How does it inform his corpuscular/atomistic theory of knowledge?

Back 97

Locke defends an empiricist epistemology because he cannot fully discount the idea of substance;

Front 98

According to Locke, what is the difference between primary and secondary qualities? Why did Locke feel the need to make such a distinction?

Back 98

The difference between primary and secondary qualities, according to Locke, was that primary qualities are intrinsic to the substance (ex. figure, extension, number), while secondary qualities were the effects that the qualities had on our senses. He felt the need to make such a distinction because he believed in a corpuscular theory of substance, meaning that if we were truly able to see primary qualities of substance we would not see the secondary qualities we believe are primary.

Front 99

Why does Kant believe that his discovery of synthetic a priori truths is of such significance for the scientific revolution, as well as the history of thought in general? Why does Kant refer to his transcendental aesthetic epistemology as the Copernican Revolution?

Back 99

Kant believes that his discovery of the synthetic a priori truth is of such significance because he believes it can help explain concepts, such as mathematical physics. By doing so, we can better understand the world, but only by how much work we put into it. Kant refers to his epistemology as the Copernican Revolution because it centered around the idea that objects in the world are shaped by our knowledge;for example, Copernicus' assertion of the heliocentric model despite the assumption that the Sun revolved around the Earth, changed the way that people view the world around them.

Front 100

According to Kant, what is the difference between phenomena and noumena?

Front 101

Why does Nagel argue against reductionism? How does physicalism differ from dualism? Does Nagel believe physicalism is false? Explain.

Front 102

What is the transitive principle? How does the Ship of Theseus Paradox appear to create problems by it? How does Chisholm resolve it?

Front 103

According to Frankfurt, what is a person? Why does he think this is not a sufficient definition? How does his drug addict example illustrate his argument?

Front 104

Discuss the general ideas of Plato, Discuss the general ideas of Aristotle.

Front 105

Discuss the General Ideas of Locke, Discuss the General Ideas of Kant, Discuss the General Ideas of Descartes

Front 106

Discuss the General Ideas of Nagel, Discuss the General Ideas of Frankfurt, Discuss the General Ideas of Chisholm