Memory Psych Midterm 1

Front 1

Which of the following are principles of association articulated by Aristotle (you may select more than one)?

Back 1

- Similarity
- Contiguity
- Contrast

Front 2

In Conway's theory of autobiographical memory, which of the following is NOT a characteristic of lifetime periods?

Back 2

Are the processes by which we retrieve autobiographical memories

Front 3

The perturbation and interference models are MOST different in that?

Back 3

The perturbation model makes precise, quantitative predictions whereas the inference model is intuitive and is based on general time knowledge

Front 4

Loftus and Palmer (1974) showed people videos of a car accident then asked questions that used different verbs to describe the event (smashed, collied, bumped, hit, contacted). They found that (you may select more than one):

Back 4

- People's estimates of the speed of the cars increased with the severity of the verb
- People were more likely to remember broken glass if the verb smashed was used

Front 5

The suffix effect is:

Back 5

when the recency effect is diminished because there is an extra word/human sound at the end of the list before the list words can be said/recited. Even though it is not part of the list you kind of include it in the list and it diminishes the recency effect

Front 6

The modal model explains primacy and recency in free recall as follows:

Back 6

Primacy occurs because of rehearsal and recency occurs because subjects retrieve from short term store

Front 7

The working memory model correctly predicts that articulatory suppression?

Back 7

Removes the word length effect for both visual and auditory information but removes the phonological similarity effect for visual items only

Front 8

Articulatory suppression:

Back 8

when they have participants say things like "the" while reading a list in an attempt to keep them from rehearsing the list words

Front 9

Phonological similarity effect:

Back 9

that you're more likely to mess up letters that sound similar to each other than look like each other. You make more errors with letters that sound similar rather than look similar

Front 10

In Signal Detection Theory, discriminability can be improved by (you may choose more than one):

Back 10

- Decreasing the standard deviation of teh signal and noise distributions
- Increasing the distance between the signal and noise distributions

Front 11

What is the main difference between the Transfer Appropriate Processing (TAP) approach and the Encoding Specificity (ES) principle?

Back 11

ES extends TAP beyond talking about the overlap of processes to talk about how the information combined with the item at study is reused at test

Front 12

The terms implicit learning versus implicit memory are used to distinguish between:

Back 12

A kind of study in which regularities are retained after many exposures to a pattern or rule, as opposed to a kind of study in which information is retained after a single exposure.

Front 13

Explain briefly the following analogies for how memory works: the wax tablet, the aviary, the telephone system, and the computer.

Back 13

Aristotle put forth the metaphor of memory being like a wax tablet. He said that forming a memory was similar to the seal that is made on a wax tablet. Therefore, if wax is hard or soft either no impression will be made or the impression will not last. Aristotle likened this part of the metaphor to people being not always prepared or equipped to form memories, and this is how he explained the fact that no one can remember everything. Plato put forth the metaphor of memory being like an aviary. He said that memories, or knowledge of these memories, were like birds and that when a person grabs a bird from the air it is like grabbing a memory from their mind. He said some birds were close and easy to grab, just as some memories are easily recalled, while other birds were far off so that you could see them but not grab them, just as some memories you know are there but you just cannot quite grasp in your mind. Broadbent put forth the metaphor of memory being like a telephone switchboard. He said that just like how connections are made between a caller and receiver of a call connections are made between stimuli and responses in memory. Simon put forth the metaphor of memory being like a computer. He said like how a computer has interaction between hardware and software there is different interactions in memory. The computer, he said, worked like a storage system, similar to how the brain stores memories.

Front 14

List and explain the three principles of association by Aristotle. What principle did the British empiricists add?

Back 14

The three principles of association by Aristotle are contiguity, similarity, and contrast. Contiguity is experiences that happen at the same time. Similarity is similar items that have an association with one another. Contrast is items with opposite meaning that are usually put together. British empiricists added the principle of contingency, meaning when certain items depend on each other, such as in cause and effect scenarios.

Front 15

Define Ebbinghaus' savings measure and describe the forgetting curve he discovered.

Back 15

Ebbinghaus' savings measure was part of an experiment that he conducted on himself. He would record the amount of time it took him to learn a list of nonsense syllables. Then, he would wait a specified amount of time and see how much he remembered. He recorded how long it took him to relearn the list the second time. Ebbinghaus was interested in studying how much memory was "saved" between learning the list the first time and learning it the second time. His equation for this was 100(T1 - T2)/T1 - R. T1 stood for the initial time it took to learn the list. T2 stood for the time it took to relearn the list. R stood for the time it took to recite the list twice (Ebbinghaus was only interested in the savings part of memory, therefore the time it took to recite the list did not need to be included). The forgetting curve that he discovered showed that a substantial and constantly decreasing amount was remembered between 19 minutes and 6 days. However, whatever was remembered at 6 days after initial learning tended to stay constant in memory all the way up to 31 days after initial learning. Even though Ebbinghaus only conducted these tests on himself his results have been replicated by others.

Front 16

What are the three levels of Conway's theory of autobiographical memory representation? How do they interact?

Back 16

The three levels of Conway's theory of autobiographical memory representation are event specific memories, general events, and lifetime periods. They interact by providing different aspects of memories and sometimes one can help cue another type of memory in your mind. For instance, you may remember a time when you went ice-skating (an event specific memory) but you forget exactly how old you were. Then you remember that you had gone ice-skating with your college friends so you must have ice-skated when you were in college (a lifetime period). Therefore, one level of Conway's theory can help you to cue a memory that is found in another level of the theory.

Front 17

What is the reminiscence bump? What three explanations have been put forward to explain it?

Back 17

The reminiscence bump is the phenomenon that many of people's most easily recalled memories come from their adolescence or early adulthood, even for older adults. Three explanations that have been put forward to explain this are: one, memory-fluency which says that adolescence and early adulthood is a time in life where people experience many "firsts" or many important events and therefore the memories stick out easily. Two, neurological views which says that peoples brains are not very well developed in early childhood and they begin to decline in later adulthood and therefore adolescence and early adulthood is when people's brains are in their prime age for remembering things. Three, sociocultural views which says that adolescence and early adulthood is a time period where people are discovering who they are and truly forming their identity and therefore the memories of this time stick out in people's minds because they relate them to their self-concept.

Front 18

When judging when events occurred people display telescoping, independent time scales and boundary effects. Describe what each of these is.

Back 18

There are two types of telescoping - forward telescoping and backward telescoping. Forward telescoping is when people estimate that an event happened more recently than it actually did. Backward telescoping is when someone is asked to put themselves in a past period (such as the 90's) and they accidentally include events from 2001 or 2005 and so on. Independent time scales is that people can be correct about one time scale (such as the hour an event occurred) but wrong on another time scale (such as the month in which the event occurred). Boundary effects are when two major events form landmarks that people organize the rest of their memory around (for example the Pearl Harbor attacks and when the US set off atomic bombs in Japan).

Front 19

Describe the perturbation and inference models of time judgments.

Back 19

The perturbation theory is that item and order information are separate in people's minds. Therefore, people can remember an item but not necessarily where that item falls in a list. The perturbation theory says that items can shift one position from their original - overtime they can become perturbed from their original spot. This theory makes sense with recency and primacy effects. The inference model says that people have memory landmarks and then use inferences based upon those landmarks to make decisions about when an event occurred. For example, people know the terrorist attacks happened on September 11th, and they know that the War in Afghanistan soon followed - these are the memory landmarks. Therefore, people can make an inference that the War in Afghanistan began between September and November because they know it came soon after September 11th.

Front 20

When Plato and Aristotle described memory as being like a wax tablet, they meant that (you may select more than one answer):

Back 20

- Memories can fade, just like an impression fades from soft wax
- When wax is hard no impression is formed. Sometimes no memory is stored.
- Memory stores impressions like wax stores patterns that are inscribed in it.

Front 21

When Plato said memory is like an aviary he meant (you may select more than one answer):

Back 21

- That memories are ephemeral, flitting here and there like birds in an aviary
- That memories require an act of retrieval in order to be used like plucking birds from the air.

Front 22

When Simon said memory is like a computer he meant (you may select more than one answer):

Back 22

- Just as computers have Random Access Memory (RAM) and hard disks, human memory has primary and secondary memory

Front 23

Which of the following are principles of association were added by the British associationists (you may select more than one)?

Back 23

- Contingency

Front 24

Who is considered to be the first scientific researcher of memory?

Back 24

Ebbinghaus

Front 25

Imagine you are testing your ability to relearn a list of 10 words after having memorized it (as indicated by your ability to recite the list twice without any errors). If it takes you 15 seconds to recite the list twice without error, 100 seconds to memorize the list the first time (including the two error-less recitations), and 50 seconds to relearn the list (including error-less recitations) – what is your percent savings (Q) when relearning the original list?

Back 25

58.80%

Front 26

In Conway's theory of autobiographical memory, memories that are formed as an accumulation of many specific memories are called:

Back 26

general memories

Front 27

In Conway's theory of autobiographical memory, epochs in our lives such as marriage, or going to college that we use to organize our memories are called:

Back 27

Lifetime periods

Front 28

In Conway's theory of autobiographical memory, the process that controls retrieval from memory is called:

Back 28

The working self

Front 29

In Conway's theory of autobiographical memory, the two kinds of general memories are:

Back 29

repeated and extended memories

Front 30

In Conway's theory of autobiographical memory, the working self tries to maintain coherence. Coherence is:

Back 30

a consistent view of self

Front 31

In Conway's theory of autobiographical memory, the working self tries to maintain correspondence. Correspondence is:

Back 31

a match with reality

Front 32

The reminiscence bump is the period between the ages of 16 and 24 from which people are better able to recall memories. Which of the following theories attributes this to the fact that there are many first experiences occuring at this time:

Back 32

the memory fluency view

Front 33

The reminiscence bump is the period between the ages of 16 and 24 from which people are better able to recall memories. Which of the following theories attributes this to the fact that brain development has peaked at this time:

Back 33

the neurological view

Front 34

The reminiscence bump is the period between the ages of 16 and 24 from which people are better able to recall memories. Which of the following theories attributes this to the fact memories are organized by our self identity, which becomes fully formed at this time:

Back 34

the sociocultural view

Front 35

Forward telescoping occurs when:

Back 35

People remember events as having occurred more recently than they did

Front 36

Backward telescoping occurs when:

Back 36

people remember events as having occurred less recently than they did

Front 37

Independence of time scales occurs when:

Back 37

People's ability to remember the year that an event occurred is not related to their ability to remember the month.

Front 38

Boundary effects occur when:

Back 38

people's estimates of when events occurred move towards the ends of time periods

Front 39

Is it possible for perturbations to occur without errors?

Back 39

Yes, because items can be perturbed out of their original position and then back into again.

Front 40

Loftus, Miller and Burns (1978) showed people slides of an intersection, some contianing a yield sign and some a stop sign. At test, misinformation was supplied about whether it was a yield or a stop sign they had seen. Later those who had received the misinformation were accurate 40% of the time, while control subjetcs were accurate 70% of the time. Which of the following are true of the misinformation effect (you may select more than one):

Back 40

- Telling people what the experiment was trying to achieve did not improve performance
- The effect works with other details also like the color of the car
- Providing financial incentives did not improve performance
- Subjects are just as confident in their memories of misinformation as they are of the correct information

Front 41

An attribution error occurs when:

Back 41

people remember details of an event but forget where the memory came from

Front 42

A flashbulb memory is:

Back 42

a memory of an event associated with strong emotions

Front 43

Flashblub memories are re-reported consistently when:

Back 43

the initial report occurs some time after the event

Front 44

Under hypnosis people's memories are:

Back 44

more confident, but not more accurate

Front 45

There is evidence to support which theory or theories of repression:

Back 45

both the failure to rehearse and the active suppression theory

Front 46

Elizabeth Loftus and others have shown that memories that are retreived in therapy using hyponosis and guided imagery (you may choose more than one response):

Back 46

- are often provided with great confidence
- can be manipulated

Front 47

The cognitive interview method emphasizes (you may choose more than one response):

Back 47

- asking the witness to recall events in different orders
- mentally reinstating the emotions that were felt at the time of the crime
- reporting everything even insignificant details
- mentally reinstating the environment of the crime

Front 48

Which of the following is the term that describes the residual sensory activity produced by a stimulus that occurs for a short time after it has been removed?

Back 48

Stimulus persistence

Front 49

Which of the following is the term that describes the retention for a short time of the information contained in a stimulus?

Back 49

Information persistence

Front 50

Which of the following is the term that describes persistent visual activity?

Back 50

Iconic memory

Front 51

Which of the following is the term that describes persistent auditory activity?

Back 51

Echoic memory

Front 52

Javon (1871) conducted an experiment in which he dropped beans on a sheet of paper and had to quickly judge the number that fell within a circle. He defined the span of apprehension as the number of beans that he got right about half the time. What did he conclude the span of apprenshion to be:

Back 52

9

Front 53

Sperling noted that when presented with a briefly flashed matrix of 12 letters subjects only recall about half. He argued that this was because:

Back 53

The letters were lost during recall

Front 54

Banks and Barber (1971) presented subjects with a matrix of letters where each row was of a different color and then cued with color to indicate which row the subjects should report. They found:

Back 54

That subjects rarely reported the row that was in teh complementary color, suggesting that iconic memory is not like an afterimage.

Front 55

AFter presentation of visual letter stimuli, partial report errors are most commonly?

Back 55

Based on acoustic similarity

Front 56

Darwin, Turvey & Crowder (1972) extended the partial report procedure to the auditory domain by playing letters simultaneously in the left ear, the right ear and both ears (preceived as originating in the middle of the subject's head). They found

Back 56

A partial report advantage of smaller magnitude in echoic memory than in iconic memory

Front 57

In serial recall, when letters are read aloud there is typically a strong recency effect. If, however, the letters are read silently the recency effect is largely eliminated. This is called the:

Back 57

Modality effect

Front 58

In serial recall, when letters are read aloud there is typically a strong recency effect. If, however, the an extra item is added to the end of the list the recency effect is largely eliminated. This does not happen if a tone is added to the end of the list. This effect is called the:

Back 58

Suffix effect

Front 59

Which of the following factors affect the suffix effect (you may select more than one)?

Back 59

- When the suffix is visually presented
- When the gender of the speaker of the suffix differed from that of the rest of the list
- The spatial location of the suffix
- The pitch of the suffix

Front 60

When Broadbent said memory is like a telephone exchange he meant (you may select more than one answer):

Back 60

The formation of memories is like making a connection between the caller and the person being called in a telephone exchange.

Front 61

In Conway's theory of autobiographical memory, the set of particular and unique memories that we accumulate through our lives are called:

Back 61

Event specific memories

Front 62

Which of the following are phenmenon that have been demonstrated about people's ability to isolate when events occurred (you may choose more than one):

Back 62

- Independence of time scales
- Better accuracy with longer time intervals
- Recency and primacy effects
- Better accuracy near natural time boundaries
- Forward and backward telescoping

Front 63

When conducting a line up in order to identify a perpetrator it is best to (you may choose more than one response):

Back 63

- Present people one after another
- Present people from different angles
- To avoid indicating if the witness has identified the suspect or not

Front 64

Which of the following is NOT an argument against the precategorical nature of iconic memory?

Back 64

When Turvey (1973) presented a letter and a brightness mask to different eyes it had no effect, but if they were presented to the same eye there was an effect. When he used a pattern mask, he got effects in both cases.

Front 65

Describe the misinformation effect (Loftus, Miller & Burns, 1978)?

Back 65

• Participants saw 30
sides of cars on an
intersection
• Half saw a stop sign
• Half saw a yield sign
At test:
– Lots of questions
– Did another car passed the
red Datsun while it was at the
stop/yield sign?
– Some subjects the question
was consistent (saw stop
sign/ were asked about stop
sign)
– Others had inconsistent
question (saw stop sign/ were
asked about yield sign)
Later:
– Participants shown 2 pictures: stop sign or yield
sign
– Asked to pick the one they saw during first phase
– Participants with misleading information were 40%
correct
– Participants with consistent information were 70%
correct
– 2 weeks later the effects were even greater
– Participants in misleading condition were more
likely to remember the implanted information than
the original info!!
--------
• Works with other details like color of car
• Recall of false information is just as fast as
real info
• Also just as confident
• False memories are also rated as vivid,
emotional, and intense as real memories
• Even after told the purpose of the experiment
it still works!
• Even if you offer $ for being accurate!

Front 66

Define flashbulb memories. What has the literature generally concluded about flashbulb memories and why?

Back 66

Flashbulb memories are memories of personal and surprising events that the person is highly confident of. These memories tend to be vivid and of great detail for people. Literature has generally concluded that flashbulb memories are no more accurate than "regular" memories, even though people tend to be more confident that their flashbulb memories are correct compared with their confidence levels for "regular" memories. This has been concluded about flashbulb memories due to many experiments that have been done that have demonstrated that flashbulb memories are no more accurate than "regular" memories. For instance, one teacher had students answer a questionnaire about an interaction with their roommate, the next day Bush Sr. started bombing Iraq and the teacher gave the participants a questionnaire about that. The participants were tested on what they could recall of both memories at 3 months and 12 months after the original incidents occurred. It was found that participants had equivalent forgetting in both of the memories, yet subjects were much more confident that their memories about the bombing were correct.

Front 67

Describe how one can get people to recall words that did not appear on a list using the Deese, Roediger, McDermott paradigm.

Back 67

The Deese, Roediger, McDermott paradigm is able to get people to recall words that did not appear on a list by making the entire list of words out of words that relate to a certain thing, but not using that thing in the list. For instance, a list of words might be "thread, pin, eye, sewing, sharp, point, pricked, thimble, haystack, pain, hurt, injection". All of these words relate to the word "needle". Thus, many participants (in this specific case 40%) recall the word "needle" as being in the list even though it was not. Participants are made to think of all these things relating to needle and thus that word comes up in their mind and they falsely attribute it to being on the list.

Front 68

Describe the experiment by Loftus that demonstrated that whole memory episodes can be implanted.

Back 68

Loftus did an experiment that demonstrated that whole memory episodes can be implanted. In this experiment, Loftus had family members tell someone about times in their past (including an incident that did not really happen, such as that person getting lost in a mall). A specific example is a boy named Chris. Chris's brother told him a story he "remembered" about Chris getting lost in the mall. Two days later, Chris told details he "remembered" about getting lost in the mall. Three weeks later, Chris was able to "recall" the whole incident. Loftus had checked to make sure that none of the implanted memories had actually happened, yet Chris "remembered" getting lost in the mall very clearly. Even when Chris was debriefed and told that one of the memories had been implanted he did not pick the mall one as being the implanted one! Thus, Loftus had demonstrated that it was fairly simple to implant a whole memory episode into someone's mind.

Front 69

The reality of repressed memories is often debated. What evidence is there that memories can be inhibited?

Back 69

An experimenter named Williams tracked down 129 adult women who had been hospitalized due to being abused when they were children (age 1 – age 12). The fact that the women had been hospitalized was important because it meant the abuse was actually documented and thus Williams could be sure it occurred. Williams found that 12% of this women were unable to remember the hospitalization/abuse. 16% of the women reported that they had forgotten about the abuse for some period of time in their lives, even when they remembered that the abuse had occurred in the interview with Williams. There have been some mechanisms of repression discussed, which include failure to rehearse and active suppression. It has been theorized that some people fail to rehearse bad memories because they are negative, private, or embarrassing. Active suppression is when people consciously stop thinking about bad memories whenever they come to mind and it has been theorized that this action eventually represses the memory.

Front 70

What aspects of the recall of memories can be used to distinguish real memories from ones that have been implanted?

Back 70

There is no true reliable method that can discriminate between genuine and implanted memories. However, there are some characteristics that most implanted memories tend to have that can help someone to distinguish real memories from implanted ones. These characteristics include: the implanted memory was gradually recovered during suggestive therapy, the implanted memory is more vague than real memories, the implanted memory has to do with thought processes, the implanted memory is less emotional (you do not feel the raw emotion of sadness, pain, anger, etc. like you do for a real memory since the implanted memory did not really happen and you never felt that emotion in the first place), and the implanted memory has fewer sensory details than a real memory (again because you never actually experienced the implanted memory and thus never experienced any sensory details of it). Again, there is no reliable method that can discriminate with 100% accuracy between genuine memories and implanted memories.

Front 71

Explain the difference between stimulus persistence and information persistence.

Back 71

Stimulus persistence is when something that sounds or looks similar to the original stimulus continues to be present in a participants mind/visual field/auditory field for a little while even after the original stimulus has disappeared. Information persistence is when information taken from a stimulus is available for a short time after the original stimulus has disappeared. Thus, stimulus persistence has to do with the stimulus (or what looks/sounds like it) remaining in a participant's mind, while information persistence has to do with information about the stimulus remaining in a participant's mind.

Front 72

Describe how Sperling's partial report task was used to establish the capacity of sensory memory.

Back 72

Sperling presented a matrix of letters to participants for 1/20th of a second. Participants were told to recall as many letters as possible, most participants were only able to recall half of the letters. Why did this occur was the question. Sperling knew that it was not because of the short amount of time participants saw the letters or that the participants did not get enough time to view all of the letters. The second part of the experiment demonstrates why Sperling was right. After viewing the letters, participants would hear a low, medium, or high tone. Depending on which tone they heard, they would report only the bottom, middle, or top row of letters. In the tone experiment recall of whatever row participants were supposed to recall was almost perfect. Thus, it was found that memory for an image (in this case the matrix of letters) fades after 1/3rd of a second or so which makes it hard to report all the letters in the display, but easier to report only a row of them. Therefore, Sperling demonstrated the short capacity of sensory memory.

Front 73

Merkle (1980) cued subjects with category cues rather than position probes. What was found and how did this change our understanding of the precategorical nature of iconic memory?

Back 73

When subjects were cued with category cues rather than position probes an advantage similar in size to cueing participants with physical location was found. This changes our understanding of the precategorical nature of iconic memory because it implies that iconic memory is not precategorical since participants were able to select information to be recalled on the basis of a category label, which requires knowledge about what the item is.

Front 74

Darwin, Turvey & Crowder (1972) used the partial report procedure to study echoic memory. Describe how they did the experiment and what they found. Contrast this with the results from iconic memory.

Back 74

Darwin, Turvey, and Crowder presented participants with three messages, each message consisted of three stimuli. One message would be presented in the participants left ear, one message in the participants right ear, and one in both ears (localized in the middle of the participant's head). In the partial report condition, participants would be presented with a visual cue immediately following the presentation of the audio stimuli. The visual cue would indicate which message (left ear, right ear, or both ears) the participant should recall. With no delay of the visual cue, the average recall was 5 of 9. Thus, there was a partial report advantage which indicated that participants recalled, on average, more items when they only had to recall one message (left ear, right ear, or both ears) as opposed to having to recall all three. Although there was an advantage, it was nowhere near as large of an advantage as the results found with iconic memory.

Front 75

Describe the modality effect in serial recall. How is it used to argue for a precategorical acoustic store?

Back 75

The modality effect is observed in serial recall tasks where participants are presented with a series of items, usually a random ordering of the digits 1-9, and are asked to recall the items in order of how they were presented. The modality effect is used to argue for a precategorical acoustic score because the precategorical acoustic score predicts that when serial recall is the measure, no recency effect will be observed with visual presentation. This prediction holds true in experiments. Another prediction that the precategorical acoustic store makes for the modality effect is that a recency effect will be observable to the extent that the acoustic information in the precategorical acoustic store is useful for identifying items. This prediction also held true in experiments. Thus, the precategorical acoustic store offers a great explanation of the modality effect.

Front 76

Ayres et al (1979) used a suffix that was the sound of a trumpet saying /wah/. When they told people it was a trumpet they got no suffix effect. When they told people it was a person, they got a suffix effect. How does this argue against a precategorical acoustic store?

Back 76

This argues against a precategorical acoustic score because according to the precategorical acoustic score, the /wah/ sound should have the same effect on both groups no matter whether they thought it was a person or a trumpet. The precategorical acoustic score cannot account for the context-dependent suffix effect where in the participants interpretation of the suffix (whether it is a person or a trumpet in this case) has a huge influence on the affect the suffix has.

Front 77

Describe the three memory systems of the modal model and how they interact.

Back 77

The three memory systems of the modal model are sensory store, short term store, and long term store. Memory starts in the sensory store and if a person pays attention to the stimulus/memory then it will be able to go into short term memory store, if a person does not pay attention to the stimulus/memory then it will not go into short term memory. If the memory makes it to the short term memory and you rehearse it enough it will move into long term memory.

Front 78

What estimate did Miller (1956) propose for the capacity of short term store? What is a chunk and why is it important to think about when estimating capacity?

Back 78

The estimate that Miller proposed for the capacity of short-term memory is 7 plus or minus 2 (so basically from 5 to 9). Chunks are meaningful groups of items that are related to each other in some way. It is important to think about chunks when estimating the capacity of short-term memory because chunks increase the amount of information that a person is able to retain at one time.

Front 79

Free recall typically shows both primacy and recency effects. Describe these effects and how they are explained by the modal model.

Back 79

--the recency effect occurs regardless of list length, or that evidence that primacy effect comes from the fact that when said out loud, first items are rehearsed more.
---- Primacy effect: the observation that memory is usually superior for items at the beginning of a serial position curve; thought to be caused by the encoding of those items into long-term memory.
----Recency effect: the observation that memory is usually superior for items at the end of a serial position curve; thought to be caused by the maintenance of those items in working memory
---- The primacy effect in free recall occurs because items that appear earlier receive addition rehearsal (since the participant has more time to rehearse them due to the fact that they appeared earlier). The recency effect in free recall occurs because participants use the contents in their short term memory before attempting to retrieve content from their long term memory (the most recent items that appeared can all be held in short term memory due to their recent appearance). This is how the modal model explains primacy and recency effects.

Front 80

Describe Baddeley's working memory model and explain the functions of the main components.

Back 80

The working memory model saw the modal model's view of short term memory as too restrictive and that that short term memory was better seen as a place where cognitive operations were carried out. The main components are: central executive, the visuo-spatial sketchpad, and the phonological loop. The central executive is considered the most important component in the model, however, little is known about how it functions. It is responsible for coordinating and monitoring the operation of the other systems and relating them to long term memory, it basically decides which parts of the working memory actually deal with pieces of information. Therefore, the central executive decides what working memory pays attention to and is especially important when two activities are conflicting with one another. Overall, the central executive acts as a system that controls attentional processes. The visuo-spatial sketchpad deals with spatial and visual information. Spatial refers to the locations of objects that are relative to one another and visual refers to what things look like (such as their color or shape). Baddeley claimed that the visuo-spatial sketchpad is used in everyday functioning and helps people to keep track of where they are in relation to other things which helps them to plan their spatial movements. The visuo-spatial sketchpad also displays spatial and visual information that is held in long-term memory (such as how many windows are in your bedroom). Most of the research done by Baddeley has been about the phonological loop. The phonological loop stores and manipulates speech-based, or phonological, information. The phonological store will retain speech-based information for around two seconds, unless that information is subsequently rehearsed. This loop is designed to explain four main phenomena which include the phonological similarity effect, effects of articulatory suppression, the irrelevant speech effect, and the word length effect.

Front 81

What is the phonological similarity effect and why is it important in understanding working memory?

Back 81

The phonological similarity effect states that memory is worse for items that sound similar to each other over items that sound different from one another. The phonological similarity effect is important in understanding memory because it helps to explain in certain situations why some things are harder to remember or differentiate between than others. Such as, the letters V, B, and C are harder to differentiate between (or remember for that matter) than the letters X, T, and K since V, B, and C sound similar to each other while X, T, and K all sound different. It is also important because it leads us to the prediction that if we can prevent a visually presented stimulus from being translated into a speech-like representation, the phonological similarity effect should go away – and this leads us to being able to do more experiments related to memory!

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What is the word length effect and what does it suggest about the capacity of working memory?

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The word length effect states that shorter words are recalled better than longer words. This effect suggests that shorter words are recalled better in part because it is easier, and takes less time, to rehearse them multiple times than it does to rehearse longer words multiple times. It suggests that the capacity of working memory is somewhat small, or at least that it is easier for working memory to rehearse and hold smaller items than it is for working memory to rehearse and hold larger items.

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Explain signal detection theory. Why is it important in understanding recognition memory.

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Signal detection theory is the most popular way of describing recognition memory performance. This theory assumes that the decision about whether a stimulus is new or old is based on how familiar the stimulus is to the participant. It is important in understanding recognition memory because it helps to explain why sometimes people are high on either false alarms or misses. If a participant is very high on false alarms, it means that the stimulus seemed more familiar to them than it should have. If a participant is very high on misses, it means that the stimulus seemed less familiar to them than it should have.

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Explain the difference between item noise and context noise approaches to recognition. Explain how the context noise approach explains the word frequency, null list strength and null list length effects in recognition memory.

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The difference between context noise and item noise is that context noise claims that the noise in recognition experiments comes mainly from similarity between contexts while item noise claims that the noise in recognition experiments comes mainly from similarity between items. So, context noise would explain an example in this way: let us say you have the word "apple", you are trying to remember if this word was on the list you studied or if it seems familiar because you learned it in class, read it in your textbook, etc. The contexts of class and studying are similar, thus the similar contexts lead to your confusion of why the word seems familiar when it may not be. Item noise would explain the same example this way: that your confusion of whether or not "apple" seems familiar is because you are not sure if that was the actual item you studied or not, perhaps you studied the word "orange" or the word "juice". "Orange" and "juice" both are similar to "apple", thus the similarity between items is what causes the confusion in item noise. Context noise explains the word frequency effect by saying that low frequency words are less likely to come up in any context and thus you have less interference from similar context problems. Context noise explains the null list-strength effect by saying that noise from other items is negligible and therefore confusion is not caused by strengthening some items. Context noise explains the null list-length effect by again saying that noise from other items is negligible and therefore confusion is not caused by adding more items.

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The dual process theory of recognition proposes that recognition performance is determined by the interplay of familiarity and recollection. List and explain the four properties that distinguish these processes.

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The four properties that distinguish these processes are, for familiarity: unconscious, faster, continuous, and automatic, and for recollection: conscious, slower, discrete, and strategic. The main difference is that familiarity is more immediate (hence "automatic", "faster", and "unconscious") whereas recollection can take longer because someone has to "consciously" think about whether or not they recollect the item. Familiarity is more based on feeling, and whether or not the item feels familiar to the participant. Feelings can be felt immediately, and thus familiarity is more automatic and continuous while recollection can take a moment, or a few, for the person to consciously decide (hence make a "concrete" and "strategic" decision) if they can recollect having seen an item during study.

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Curran (2000) ran an event related potential experiment that used singular and plural words. Describe the experiment and explain how it has been used as evidence for dual process theory.

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In the experiment by Curran, the experimenters presented singulars and plurals such as "dogs", "cat", and "cups. At the time of testing they presented things such as "dogs" (target), "cats" (similar lure), and "tree" (dissimilar lure). This experiment has to do with how the brain differentiates between targets, similar lures, and dissimilar lures. Therefore, if you have two different processes for these things then one should be slower than the other and use a separate area/areas of the brain. This experiment has been used as evidence for dual process theory because measuring event-related brain potentials during recognition memory tests might offer a way to estimate contributions of familiarity and recollection (which relates to the dual-process theory). Doing an experiment this way can help us to see if the brain is actually using multiple processes.

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Describe the levels of processing approach. Describe an experiment that demonstrates the LOP effect.

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The levels of processing approach conceptualizes memory as a set of operations. This approach states that more meaningful handling of information will lead to better encoding of that information. Thus, it argues that words will be remembered to the extent that they are processed in terms of their meaning, which is considered deep processing, as opposed to their surface features, which is considered shallow processing. An experiment that demonstrated the LOP effect was done by Hyde and Jenkins. The experimenters had twenty-four common words, presented in an auditory fashion, that they used as to-be-remembered items. After the presentation of the words, the participants were asked to recall as many words as they could in any order, meaning the experiment was a free recall experiment. The groups of participants differed in the orienting instructions given to them and in whether they were told in advance that there would be a free recall test. One group of participants was did a shallow task, such as checking words for the presence of certain letters . A second group was given the task of deciding which part of speech (noun or verb) the words were. A third group had to rate how common they though each word was. A fourth group was given the deeper processing task of deciding whether or not the words they saw were pleasant or unpleasant. Thus, each group was given a different level of processing on which to view the words. Half of the participants in each group were told that they would need to remember the items for later, the other half were not instructed to remember the items nor to forget them. Lastly, there was a group that was simply told to remember the words for a free recall test (they were not told to process the words in any sense). The findings were that it did not really matter whether or not the person knew beforehand that they should remember the words – groups that were told to remember did no better than their paired groups who were not told to remember. The other finding was that how the material was processed (what level it was processed on) related critically to memory. Therefore, the deeper the process, the better the recall was. Thus, this experiment demonstrated the LOP effect.

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What main issue with the LOP approach was the transfer appropriate processing approach designed to address? Describe an experiment that demonstrates the TAP effect

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The main issue with the LOP approach that the TAP approach was designed to address is that the LOP approach leaves out retrieval processes and only focuses on encoding processes, the TAP approach does not leave retrieval processes out. The TAP states that a process leads to better recall not due to the fact that processing was deeper but because it is the appropriate processing for the type of test that comes after. An experiment that demonstrates the TAP effect was done by Morris, Bransford, and Franks. The experimenters presented participants with 32 sentences and they varied the types of processing and the types of memory tests the participants had to perform. For instance, one group would get a sentence with a blank in it and then be asked if certain words would make logical sense to fill in the blank. Another group would be given words and asked if these words rhymed with something like "pain", "bee", etc. Up until this point the experiment was just like the LOP experiments. However, this experiment had two different testing conditions – one of standard recognition and one of rhyming recognition (where participants were shown a word and asked if it rhymed with a target word that they had been shown during the study period). The experimenters found that depending on the type of processing a participant did it affected how well they did in different types of testing. For example, participants who had done the fill-in-the-blank processing did better in standard recognition tests than participants who had done rhyming processing. On the flip side, participants who had done the rhyming processing did better in the rhyming processing than participants who had done the fill-in-the-blank processing. Thus, this experiment demonstrated that different levels of processing affected how well a participant did on different kinds of tests – not necessarily that one level of processing (in this case the "deeper" level) always was better for testing than another level of processing.

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Describe the encoding specificity principle. Tulving and Thompson (1970) conducted a study using strong and weak associates to demonstrate the principle. Describe the experiment and how it argues for the encoding specificity principle.

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The encoding specificity principle states that recollection of an event depends on the interaction between the properties of the encoded event and the properties of retrieval information. The experiment that Tulving and Thompson conducted has to do with a strong cue or a weak cue for the word "flower". A strong cue for "flower" would be "bloom" and a weak cue for "flower" would be "fruit". Tulving and Thompson would present target words alone or with a weak cue during study (so the cue of "fruit" as a weak cue). Then, during the recall test they would provide participants with either no cue, a weak cue, or a strong cue. It was concluded that the effectiveness of a long-standing strong cue at the retrieval step can be overridden by a weak cue depending on what occurred during study of the stimulus. This relates to the encoding specificity principle because it deals with the properties of the encoded event (what was studied during encoding, such as the weak cue) and how it relates to the properties of retrieval information (what is recalled during test, such as whether the strong cue or the weak cue helps the participant recall the word). Therefore, this experiment relates completely to the encoding specificity principle.

Front 90

Describe Godden and Baddeley (1975) famous experiment involving divers, that demonstrates the context dependent nature of memory.

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Godden and Baddeley had experienced divers learn a list of words either on land or under water. Then, the divers were all retested on how many words they could remember from the list. Half of the divers who studied the list on land were tested on land, the other half of divers who studied the list on land were tested underwater. Half of the divers who studied the list underwater were tested underwater, the other half of divers who studied the list underwater were tested on land. The participants did better during the test if they were tested in the same context (either on land or underwater) that they had studied the list of words in. This experiment thus demonstrates that context has an affect on memory. Studying something in the same environment that you will be tested on it in helps you to remember the information later. This experiment basically says that you should study for your classes in the classroom you will take your exam in because you will remember more during the exam!

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What does it mean to say that memory is state dependent? Describe Goodwin et al (1969) study involving alcohol that demonstrates state dependence.

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To say memory is state dependent means that recall is improved if emotional, pharmacological, or internal physiological states are the same during encoding (aka studying) as testing. The Goodwin et al study had some participants be sober and others be intoxicated while they studied a list of words. Later, half of the participants who studied the list while sober were tested while sober, the other half of participants who studied the list sober were tested while intoxicated. Half of the participants who studied the list while intoxicated were tested while intoxicated, the other half of participants who studied the list while intoxicated were tested while sober. Goodwin et al found that participants who were intoxicated while studying the list did better on testing if they were intoxicated again. The same was found with the sober participants. If they studied the list while sober, they did better on the test while sober. This experiment demonstrates the effect that internal states can have on memory.

Front 92

Atkinson and Shiffrin's Memory Model (1968) is composed of three levels including all of the following EXCEPT?

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Control processes

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Conrad (1964) presented subjects with lists of words and had them recall the words in order. Lists of which type showed significant interference (you may select more than one):

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Phonologically similar items

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Miller (1956) estiamted the capacity of short term memory to be:

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7 +/- 2

Front 95

When people study lists of items that have subpatterns within them such as:

FBICIAIRSOSU

people remember them much better because they code these subpatterns. This phenomenon is called:

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Chunking

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Which of the following is NOT true of primacy and recency effects?

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The primacy effect is attenuated with delayed recall.

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The systems in Baddeley's working memory model are (you may select more than one):

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- The visio-spatial sketchpad
- The central executive
- The phonological loop
- The episodic buffer

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The central executive:

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Controls attentional processes and manages the other working memory systems

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The phonological loop:

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stores and manipulates speech based information

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The visiospatial sketchpad:

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stores what things look like and their locations

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The episodic buffer:

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integrates information from other systems

Front 102

The phonological loop includes:

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the phonological store and the articulatory control process

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The articulatory control process is responsible for (you may select more than on):

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- translating visual information into phonological information and depositing it in the phonologoical store
- the subvocal rehearsal necessary to maintain information in the phonological store

Front 104

Short words (man, dog, mumps) are recalled better than long words (gentleman, canine, diphtheria). Baddley argued that the effect occurs because:

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long words have more sylables, take longer to say and therefore are not rehearsed as many times as short words.

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In Signal Detection Theory, a distractor that has a strength above criterion is called a:

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false alarm

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In Signal Detection Theory, a distractor that has a strength below criterion is called a:

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correct rejection

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In Signal Detection Theory, a target that has a strength above criterion is called a:

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hit

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In Signal Detection Theory, a target that has a strength below criterion is called a:

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miss

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d' is a measure of

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discriminability

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The hit rate is:

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the probability of saying yes to an old word

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C is a measure of

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bias

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The false alarm rate is:

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the probability of saying yes to a new word

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In Signal Detection Theory, a more lenient bias can be captured by (you may choose more than one response):

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- lowering criterion

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Familiarity is thought to be:

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unconscious, fast, continuous and automatic

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Recollection is thought to be:

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conscious, slow, discrete, and strategic

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Item noise models of recognition assume that interference comes primarily from:

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other items that appeared on the study list

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Context noise models of recognition assume that interference comes primarily from:

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other contexts in which the item has been seen

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According to context noise theories of recognition, the word frequency effect occurs because:

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low frequency words are seen in fewer contexts

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According to context noise theories of recognition, the null list strength effect occurs because:

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interference from other items is negligible

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According to context noise theories of recognition, the null list length effect occurs because:

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interference from other items is negligible

Front 121

How did Craik and Lockhart (1972) suggest that memory research be conducted (you may select more than one)?

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- wherein the subject studies the material without the intent to learn
- wherein the experimenter dictates the mechanism of studying

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Arrange these tasks in order from shallow to deep levels of processing 1.) identify the part of speech of the word 2.) rate the frequency/commonality of the word 3.) report if the word contains a vowel 4.) rate each words' pleasantness

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3,1,2,4

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Craik and Watkins (1973) showed subjects lists of words (e.g. daughter oil rifle garden grain table football anchor giraffe) and told them that they would need to produce teh last word begining with a given letter (e.g. G), so they had best rehearse that item. They manipulated the amount of time people had to rehearse and in a surprise recall test found:

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rehearsal had no impact on performance

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The main problem(s) for the levels of processing approach were (you may select more than one):

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- Circularity: deeper processing led to better recall, but the only way to know processing was deeper was to observe recall.
- Omission: only addressed processes during study, not at recall

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Under which condition will performance be worst?

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when subjects are intoxicated at the time of study and sober during testing.

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Consolidation theory states that we fail to remember because

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memories are not completely encoded unless a period of low neural activity follows the learning episode

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Interference theory states that we fail to remember because

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memories compete with each other for retrieval

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Decay theory states that we fail to remember because

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memories become weak as a function of the passage of time

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Jenkins and Dallenbach (1924) had subjects study lists of syllables and showed that:

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sleep following study improves retention relative to no sleep in accordance with consolidation theory.

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Duncan (1949) trained rats to avoid a shock and then administered an electroconvulsive shock at different time delays. He found that:

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the longer the time between study and ECS the better performance was consistent with consolidation theory.

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Quartermaine, McEwen, Azmitia (1972) tested rats 24, 48 and 72 hours after ECS. They found that

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performance was compromised after 24 and 48 hours, but returned in some rats after 72 hours suggesting that memories were stored.

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If subjects study a list of AB pairs and a list of AD pairs retroactive interference would refer to

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the influence of the AD pairs when trying to to recal the B items.

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If subjects study a list of AB pairs and a list of AD pairs proactive interference would refer to

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the influence of the AB pairs when trying to recall the D items.

Front 134

If sets of similar items must be retrieved and then a set of dissimilar items is presented, performance improves. This phenomena is known as:

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release from proactive interference

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The terms direct and indirect are used to distinguish between

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tests that make reference to the study episode versus those that do not.

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The terms explicit and implicit are used to distinguish between

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a kind of memory that involves conscious awareness of the study episode at test as opposed to a kind of memory that does not.

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The terms intentional and incidental are used to distinguish between

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study instructions that make the subject aware that a test will follow versus those that do not.

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The terms subliminal perception and implicit memory are used to distinguish between

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situations in which subjects are consciously aware of stimuli at study versus those when they are not.

Front 139

Which of the following manipulations provide support for the distinction between implicit and explicit memory (you may select more than one answer)?

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- modality of presentation
- retroactive and proactive interference
- levels of processing