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156 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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endochondrial vs. intramembranous ossification
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endochondrial ossification = the hardening of cartilage into bone
intramembranous ossification = the process of bone formation from a non-cartilage source (mesenchymal tissue) |
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what regions of the sarcomere become smaller during contraction and what regions don't change length?
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A-band - stays the same
I-band (thin filament only), H-zone (thick filament only), and distance between Z-lines - deacrease |
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red muscle fibers
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"slow twitch"
makes energy aerobically-->lots of mitochondria uses myoglobin |
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white muscle fibers
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"fast twitch"
derives energy anaerobically more easily exhaustable |
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process of muscle contraction
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Acetylcholine release into neuromuscular junction --> action potential propagation by T-tubules --> Ca2+ release from sarcoplasmic reticulum --> Ca2+ binding to troponin --> tropomysin moves --> myosin heads binds actin filament with ADP+P bound --> ADP+P release (=power stroke)-->ATP binds myosin head + head releases actin
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tonus
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constant state of low-level contraction
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tetanus
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point at which max force is reached during frequency summation (due to frequent stimuli) after which muscle is fatigued
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frequency summation
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muscles exposed to frequent and prolonged stimulus dont have enough time to relac and contractions begin to combine and become stronger and more prolonged until tetanus is reached
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3 fiber types of connective tissues
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collagenous - made of collagen; strong
elastic - made of elastic; resilient reticular - tightly woven fibers that connect connective tissue to surrounding tissues |
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loose connective tissue
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- holds organs in place
- 2 cell types: Fibroblasts-secrete extracellular fiber components macrophages |
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dense connective tissue
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makes tendons and ligaments
high % of collagenous fibers (for strength) |
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flexor muscles
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decrease the angle of a joint
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extensor muscles
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increase the angle of a joint
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abductor muscles
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move body part away from body's midline
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adductor muscles
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move body part toward body's midline
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circulatory path
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left atrium --> left ventricle --> aorta --> arteries --> arterioles --> capillaries --> venules --> veins --> inferior and superior vena cava --> right atrium --> right ventricle --> pulmonary artery --> lungs --> pulmonary vein --> left atrium
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tricupsid
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right AV valve; between right atrium and ventricle
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bicuspid
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mitral valve = left AV valve
between left atrium and ventricle |
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pulmonary valve (semilunar)
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- right semilunar valve
- between right ventricle and pulmonary artery |
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aortic valve (semilunar)
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- left semilunar valve
- between left ventricle and aorta |
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myocyte
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=muscle cell; made of multiple myofibrils bundled together
- multinucleated |
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diastole
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- low pressure; ventricular relaxation +closure of semilunar valves
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systole
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- high pressure; ventricular contraction + closing of the atrioventricular valves
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cardiac output
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= total amount of blood pumped by the heart/min (L/min)
= stroke volume (L/beat) x heart beat (beats/min) |
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SA node
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- located in the wall of the right atrium
- depolarization --> atria contraction - has myogenic activity - 1º pacemaker of heart |
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AV node
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- sits btwn right and left ventricles
- signal is delayed until ventricle is full of blood --> moves through bundle of His to purkinje fibers --> contraction |
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vagus nerve
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the parasympathetic nervous system controls heart rate thru the vagus nerve
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diastolic pressure
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= systole(high)/diastole(low)
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erythrocytes
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= RBCs
- have no nuclei or mitochondria - cannot divide; digested by spleen after ~120 days |
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platelets
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= clotting factors
- derived from fragmented megakarocytes in marrow - damage is "sensed" by contact with collagen - thromboplastin converts prothrombin to thrombin - thrombin converts fibrinogen to fibrin |
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schwann cells/oligodendrites
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- make myelin (myelin sheath)
- schwann cells in the PNS - oligodendrites in the CNS |
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saltatory conduction
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= "hopping" of electric signal from node-to-node
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resting membrane potential
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~ -70 mV
- inside: Hi[K+], Lo[Na+] |
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depolarization
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- due to opening of Na+-voltage gated channels
- open ~ -50mV; close ~+35mV |
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repolarization
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- due to opening of K+-voltage gated channels (~+35mV)
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afferent neurons
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= stimulatory nerons; carry infro form periphery --> brain
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efferent neurons
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= motor neurons; carry info from brain --> periphery
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interneurons
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only involved in local circuits; don't carry signals/info long distances
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gray matter
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unmyelinated brain tissue
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white matter
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myelinated brain tissue
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Forebrain
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- Telencephalon: cerebral cortex
- Diancephelon: thalamus, hypothalamus |
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cerebral cortex
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region of convoluted gray matter that is responsible for all higher-thinking; where motor signals originate
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thalamus
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"gateway" to brain thru which all signals must pass
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Midbrain
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- serves as a relay point between forebrain and hindbrain
- passes sensory/visual info to forebrain; passes motor instructions from forebrain to hindbrain |
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Hindbrain
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Brain stem: medulla, pons, cerebellum
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Cerebellum
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- responsible for coordination (hand-eye, balance, timing of quick movement)
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Medulla
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- modulates ventillation, heart rate, and GI tone
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Spinal cord
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- 4 division (starting at skull): cervical --> thoracic --> lumbar --> sacral
- has white and gray matter - involved in its own reflex arcs - sensory neurons enter on dorsal side - motor neurons exit on ventral side |
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Dorsal root ganglia
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= cell body clumps of sensory neurons in the spinal cord
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CNS
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= brain + spinal cord
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PNS
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= ANS (autonomic nervous system) + SNS (somatic nervous system)
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Somatic nervous system
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- responsible for voluntary movement (skeletal muscle) and reflex arcs
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Autonomic nervous system
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- responsible for involuntary movement
- comprises sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems - uses a 2-neuron system (w/ pre- and post-ganglionic neurons) |
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Sympathetic nervous system
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= "fight-or-flight"
- dilated pupils, increased heart rate + breathing, decreased blood flow to GI tract and kidney, increased blood flow to skeletal muscle |
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Parasympathetic nervous system
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- "rest and digest"
- decreased heart rate and breathing, constricted pupils, increased flow to GI tract and kidneys - functions via vagus nerve |
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interoceptors
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type of sensory neuron that monitors the internal environment
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exteroceptors
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type of sensory neuron that montors the external environment
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proprioceptors
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type of sensory neuron that allows us to sense our physical position (in the environment)
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nociceptors
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pain receptors
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sclera
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thick covering of eye; white of eye
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choroid
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- provide nutrients and O2 to eye
- sits beneath sclera |
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cornea
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- bends and focuses light
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iris
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- pigmented muscles that control size of pupil
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lens
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- final focusing of light onto retina
- is a converging lens |
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ciliary muscles
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- control the lens
- relaxing --> flattening of lens --> focal point moves away --> less powerful lens |
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retina
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- where light in eye is focused
- contains 2 types of photoreceptors (rods and cones) |
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rods
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- rhodopsin
- detects low-light illumination (night vision) - only sees black and white images |
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cones
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- 3 types; red absorbing, blue absorbing, and blue absorbing
- see color |
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bipolar cells
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- relay info from photoreceptors --> retinal ganglion
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pathway of sound waves in hearing
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auditory canal --> tympanic membrane (oscillates) --> ossicles (malleus, stapes, incus) --> oval window --> FLUID WAVES--> depolarization of hair cells (Organ of Corti inside cochlea)
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cochlea
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= hearing part of ear; contains hair cells in the organ of Corti
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seminiferous tubules
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- site of spermatogenesis
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interstitial cells/cells of Leydig
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= make androgens and testosterone
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testes
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= seminiferous tubules + interstitial cells/cells of Leydig
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Sertoli cells
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- nourish seminiferous tubule in the testes
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epidydimis
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- site of sperm maturation and storage
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seminal fluid
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= semen + alkaline liquid (prostate gland) + fructose (seminal vesicles) + liquid (bulbourethral gland)
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path of sperm during ejaculation
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SEVEN UP:
seminiferous tubules --> epididymis --> vas deferens --> ejaculatory duct --> [NOTHING] --> urethra --> penis |
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spermatogenesis
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spermatogonia (2n) --> 1º spermatocyte (2n) --[meiosis I]--> 2º spermatocyte (n) --[meiosis II]--> 4 spermatids (n) --[maturation]--> spermatozoa
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cortical reaction
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= wave of calcium after fertilization to prevent poly-fertilization
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timing of 1st, 2nd, and 3rd cleavage during embryogenesis
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- 1st: 32 hrs
- 2nd: 60 hrs - 3rd: 72 hrs |
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blastocoel
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= hollow, fluid-filled cavity in the blastula
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trophoblast
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- exterior of blastula
- gives rise to chorion and placenta (extra embryonic tissues) |
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Inner cell mass
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gives rise to all embryonic tissues
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gastrulation
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= process during which the 3 germ layers arise
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archenteron
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interior of the 3 layered gastrula that will become the gut
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blastopore
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= opening of the achenteron in the gastrula
- in deuterosomes (ie humans), will become the anus - in protosome, will become the mouth |
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ectodermal tissues
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adrenal medulla, skin, hair, nails, nervous system, epithelial lining of nose, mouth, anal canal, lens of eye,
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mesodermal tissues
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adrenal cortex, muscles, skeleton, circulatory system (veins and blood), exceretory system, gonads, connective tissue coats of digestive and respiratory tracts
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endodermal tissues
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epithelial lining of repiratory and digestirve tracts (including lungs), parts of liver lining, pancreas, thyroid, baldder, distal urinary and reproductive tracts
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notochord
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tube formed by mesoderm during neurulation
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neural folds and neural groove
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forms by extodermal cells during neurulation; will become the neural tube which becomes the CNS
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neural crest cells
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- become the PNS
- located at the tips of the neural folds |
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ductus venosus
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- duct/shunt in the fetus that connects the umbilical vein to the inferior vena cava
- bypasses the fetal liver |
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ductus arteriosus
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- shunt in the fetal heart connecting the pulmonary artery and the aorta to prevent blood in the right ventricle from going to the lungs
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foramen ovale
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shunt in the fetus that connects right and left atria to prevent blood getting to the lungs
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cocci
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round/spherical shaped bacteria (ie staphylococcus aurea)
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bacilli
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rod-shaped bacteria (ie E. coli)
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smooth ER
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involved in lipid synthesis and drug/poison detoxificatoin
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rough ER
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- has bound ribosomes
- involved in synthesis of proteins destined for PM or secretion |
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golgi
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= packaging center; receives proteins from ER and packages them for final destination
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peroxisomes
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create H2O2 to break down fats and to catalyze detox reactions in the liver
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glyoxisomes
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- important in germinating plants
-c onvert fats into usable sugars until plant is able to photosynthesize |
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cell wall
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- found in most bacteria, plants, and fungi
- plant cell walls - made of cellulose - fungal cell walls - made of chitin |
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tight junctions
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- connect PM of neighboring cells tightly so no material can pass
- form a barrier btwn intestines and blood stream |
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anchoring junctions/desmosomes
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- connect cells --> resistance to mechanical stress
- desmosomes connect epithelial cells in skin |
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gap junctions
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- made of connexins
- allow passage of water and small ions btwn cells - found in heart and muscle cells |
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leukocytes
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= WBC's
- granular = neutrophils, basopils, eosinophils - agranular = lymphytes (B+T-cells) + monocytes (macrophages) |
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components of non-specific/innate immunity
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- skin
- enzymes in tears, saliva, sweat - amcrophages - mast cells - granulocytes (granular leukocytes = basophils, neutrophils, eosinophils) - dendrytic cells natural killer cells - histamine and interferon |
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interferon
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- chemical that prevents viral replication and dispersion
- produced by immune cells and cells infected with a virus - NON SPECIFIC chemical action |
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humoral immunity
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- B-cell mediated
- produces plasma cells (will die eventually) and memory cells (don't die) - important in fighting of bacterial infections |
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cytokines
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- chemicals that prime/help activate immune cells
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cell mediated immunity
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- T-cell mediated
- important for fighting viral and fungal infection - memory T cells may be formed |
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helper T cell
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- T4
- increase immune response to infection by secreting lymphokines and ing immune cells |
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cytotoxic/killer T cells
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- T8
- directly kill virally infected cells by secreting toxins |
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supressor T cells
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- T8
- help tone down immune response after infection has been contained |
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Lymphatic system pathway
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fluid in interstitial space --> lymphatic vessels --> thoracic duct (chest) --> left subclavian vein --> cardiovascular circulation
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lacteals
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= small lymphatic vessels that collect fats (as chylomicrons) from the villi of small intestnis and deliver them to bloostream
- bypasses liver |
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phacogcytes
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neutrophils and macrophages
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MHC II
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found on immune cells like B cells, T cells and macrophages
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MHC I
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found on all cells
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epitope
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= specific part of the antigen that is recognized by immune cells (ie a specific cell surface protein on a bacteria)
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Digestive tract pathway
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oral cavity --> pharynx --> esophagus --> stomach --> small intestine --> large intestine
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Salivary amylase (aka ptyalin)
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- enzyme in saliva that hydrolyzes starches to smaller sugar (maltose and dextrin)
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epiglottis
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covers the trachea during swallowing to prevent food from entering the larynx
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esophagus
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- upper third has skeletal muscle and is under voluntary control
- rest has smooth muscle and is under involuntary control |
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cardiac sphyncter
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= lower esophageal sphyncter; connects esophagus to stomach
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gastric glands
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- found in stomach and respond to sight taste and smell of food
- made of 3 cell types: mucous cells, chief cells, and parietal cells |
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mucous cells
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secrete protective mucous
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parietal cells
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secrete HCl which activates pesinogen --> pepsin and which kills bacteria
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chief cells
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- secrete pepsinogen (=inactive form of pepsin)
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gastric juice
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= HCl + pepsinogen
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pyloric glands
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- found in stomach
- sectretes gastrin |
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gastrin
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= hormone that induces stomach to produce HCl and to mix contents --> chyme
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pepsin
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- partially digests proteins; cleaves near aromatic AAs
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pancreatic juice
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= bicarbonate + pancreatic enzymes
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pancreatic amylase
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digests starches --> small disaccharides
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Pancreatic peptidases
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- aid in protein digestion
- trypsinogen --(enterokinase)--> trypsin - chymotrypsinogen, elastinogen, carboxypeptidase --(trypsin)--> active forms |
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lipase
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- digests fats --> free fatty acids
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pancreatic enzymes
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= pancreatic amylase, pancreatic peptidases, lipase
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enterokinase
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- produced by small intesine cells
- master switch that activates pancreatic peptidases |
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bile salts
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- act like detergents that emulsify fats (keep them in solution) so they can be digested
- causes fats to form micelles |
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gall bladder
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- stores bile produced in liver
- secretes bile into duodenum in response to CCK secretion by small intestinal cells |
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CCK
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causes gallbladder to release bile and pancreas to release pancreatic juice
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maltase
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converts maltose --> 2 glucose
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lactase
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converts lactose --> glucose and galactose
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sucrase
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converts sucrose --> glucose and fructose
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pyloric sphyncter
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connects stomach to duodenum of small intestine
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bile
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= bile salts + bile pigments + cholesterol
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enterogastrone
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hormone released when high fat meal is eaten to slow the movement of chyme thru the intestines
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fat soluble vitamins
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vitamins A, D, E, K
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carboxypeptidase
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hydrolyzed proteins at carboxyl end
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aminopeptidase
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hydrolyzed proteins at amino end
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colon
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site of water and salt absorbtion
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large intestine
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cecum, colon, rectum
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rectum
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- feces storage
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