Mcat Behavioral Science

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Absolute poverty

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Poverty wherein people do not have enough resources to acquire basic life necessities such as shelter, food, clothing, and water

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Absolute threshold

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The minimum of stimulus energy needed to activate a sensory system.

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Accommodation

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Process by which existing schemata are modified to encompass new information

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Acetylcholine

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A neurotransmitter associated with voluntary muscle control. It is found in both the central and peripheral nervous system.

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Achieved status

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A status gained as a result of direct, individual action

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Acquisition

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In classical conditioning, the process of taking advantage of reflexive responses to turn a neutral stimulus into a conditioned stimulus.

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Adaptation

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In perception, a decrease in stimulus perception after a long duration of exposure; in learning, the process by which new information is processed; consists of assimilation and accommodation

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Adaptive value

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The extent to which a trait benefits a species by influencing the evolutionary fitness of the species.

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Ageism

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Prejudice of discrimination on the basis of a person's age

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Alcohol myopia

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The inability to think about consequences and possible outcomes of one's actions due to alcohol intoxication

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Alertness

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State of consciousness in which one is aware, able to think, and able to respond to the environment, nearly synonymous with arousal.

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Aligning actions

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An impression management strategy in which one makes questionable behavior acceptable through excuses

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Alter-casting

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An impression management strategy in which one imposes an identity onto another person

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Altruism

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A form of helping behavior in which the person's intent is to benefit someone else at a cost to him or herself

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Amphetamine

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A CNS stimulant that increases activity of both dopamine and norepinephrine in the brain

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Amygdala

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A portion of the limbic system that is important for memory and emotion and fear. In order to effect the Amygdala, a therapist might put a patient under systematic desensitization treatment.

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Anomie

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A state of normlessness; anomic conditions erode social solidarity by means of excessive individualism, social inequality, and isolation.

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Anxiety disorders

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Disorders that involve worry, unease, fear, and apprehension about future uncertainties based on real or imagined events that can impair physical and psychological health

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Appraisal model

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A similar theory to the basic model, accepting that there are biologically predetermined expressions once an emotion is experienced; accepts that there is a cognitive antecedent to emotional expression

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Archetype

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In Jungian psychoanalysis, a thought or image that has an emotional element and is part of the collective unconsciousness

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Arousal

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A psychological and physiological state of being awake or reactive to stimuli; nearly synonymous with alertness

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arousal theory

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A theory of motivation that states there is a particular level of arousal required in order to perform actions optimally; summarized by the Yerkes Dodson law

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Ascribed status

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A status that one is given at birth, such as race, ethnicity, or sex

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Assimilation

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In psychology, the process by which new information is interpreted in terms of existing schemata; in sociology, the process by which the behavior and culture of a group or an individual begins to merge with that of another group

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Associative learning

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the process by which a connection is made between two stimuli or a stimulus and a response; examples include classical and operant conditioning.

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Attribute substitution

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A phenomenon observed when individuals must make judgements that are complex but instead substitute a simpler solution or perception

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Attribution theory

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A theory that focuses on the tendency for individuals to infer the causes of other people's behavior

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Authentic self

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Who someone actually is, including both positive and negative attributes.

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Automatic processing

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The brain process most closely resembling autopilot, enabling performance of multiple activities at the same time

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Autonomic nervous system

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The involuntary branch of the PNS that controls involuntary functions such as heart rat, bronchial dilation, temperature, and digestion

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Autonomy

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The ethical tenet that the physician has the responsibility to respect patient's choices about their own healthcare

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Availability heuristic

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A shortcut in decision making that relies on the information that is most readily available, rather than the total body of the information on a subject.

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Avoidance learning

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A form of negative reinforcement in which one avoids the unpleasantness of something that has yet to happen

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Back Stage

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In the dramaturgical approach, the setting where players are free from their role requirements and not in front of the audience; back stage behaviors may not be deemed appropriate or acceptable and are thus kept invisible from the audience

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Barbiturate

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A drug that acts as a CNS depressant; often used for anxiety, insomnia, and as an antiseizure medication

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Basal ganglia

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A portion of the forebrain that coordinates muscle movement and routes information from the cortex to the brain and spinal cord

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Basic model

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First established by Charles Darwin, a theory that states that emotional expression involves number of systems: facial expression as well as behavioral and physical responses; claims that emotions are universal and should be similar across cultures

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Belief

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An acceptance that a statement is true or that something exists

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Beneficence

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The ethical tenet that the physician has a responsibility to act in the patient's best interest

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Benzodiazepine

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A CNS depressant that is often used to reduce anxiety or promote sleep

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Biomedical approach

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an approach to psychological disorders that considers only pathophysiological causes and offers pharmaceutical and medical solutions for symptom alleviation

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Biopsychosocial approach

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An approach to psychological disorders that considers conditions and treatments to be dependent on biological, psychological, and social causes

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Birth rate

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The number of births per population in a period of time; usually the number of births per 1000 people per year

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Bisexual

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A sexual orientation wherein individuals are attracted to members of both sexes

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Brainstem

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The most primitive portion of the brain, which includes the midbrain and hindbrain; controls the autonomic nervous system and communication between the spinal cord, cranial nerves, and brain

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Broca's aphasia

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Loss of the motor function of speech, resulting in intact understanding with an inability to correctly produce spoken language

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Broca's area

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A brain region located in the inferior frontal gyrus of the frontal lobe (usually in the left hemisphere); largely responsible for the motor function of speech

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Bureaucracy

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A formal organization with the goal of performing complex tasks as efficiently as possible by dividing work amount a number of bureaus

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bystander effect

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The observation that, when in a group, individuals are less likely to respond to a person in need

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Cannon-Bard theory

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a theory of emotion that states that a stimulus is first received and is then simultaneously processed physiologically and cognitively, allowing for the conscious emotion to be experienced

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Cataplexy

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Loss of muscle control with intrusion of REM during waking hours, usually caused by an emotional trigger. Sometimes associated with narcolepsy.

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Catatonia

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Disorganized motor behavior characterized by various unusual physical movements or stillness

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Central Nervous System

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The portion of the nervous system composed of the brain and spinal cord

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Cerebellum

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A portion of the hindbrain that maintains posture and balance and coordinates body movements

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Cerebral cortex

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The outermost layer of the cerebrum, responsible for complex perceptual, behavioral, and cognitive processes

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Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

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an aqueous solution in which the brain and spinal cord rest; produced by cells lining the ventricles of the brain

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Cerebrum

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A portion fo the brain that contains the cerebral cortex, limbic system, and basal ganglia

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Characteristic institution

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The social structure or institution about which societies are organized

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Circadian rhythm

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the alignment of physiological processes with the 24- hour day, including sleep-wake cycles and some elements of the endocrine system. Regulated by the Superchiasmatic Nucleus

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Circular reaction

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A repetitive action that achieves a desired response, seen during Piaget's sensorimotor stage

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Classical conditioning

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A form of associative learning in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus such that the neutral stimulus alone produces the same response as the unconditioned stimulus; the neutral stimulus thus becomes a conditioned stimulus.

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cognitive dissonance

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the simultaneous presence of two opposing thoughts or opinions

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Collective unconscious

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In jungian psychoanalysis, the part of the unconscious mind that is shared among all humans and is a result of our common ancestry

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Colliculi

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Two structures in the midbrain involved in sensorimotor reflexes; the superior colliculus receives visual sensory input (and is responsible for the coordination of eye movement), and the inferior colliculus receives auditory sensory input

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Complaince

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A change of behavior of an individual at the request of another

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Conduction aphasia

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A speech disorder characterized by the inability to repeat words with intact spontaneous speech production and comprehension; usually due to injury to the arcuate fasciculus.

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Confirmation bias

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A cognitive bias in which one focuses on information that supports a given solution, belief, or hypothesis, and ignores evidence against it

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Conflict theory

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A theoretical framework that emphasized the role of power differentials in producing social order

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Conformity

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The changing of beliefs or behaviors in order to fit into a group or society

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Consciousness

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Awareness of one-self; can be used to describe varying levels of awareness that occur with wakefulness, sleep, dreaming, and drug-induced state

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Conservation

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Concept seen in quantitative analysis performed by a child; develops when a child is able to identify the difference between quantity by number and actual amount, especially when faced with identical quantities separated into varying pieces

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Context effect

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A retrieval cue by which memory is aided when a person is in the location where encoding took place

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Contralateral

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On the opposite side of the body, relative to something else

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Controlled (conscious) processing

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Processing method used when a task requires complete attention

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Correspondent inference theory

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A theory that statements that people pay closer attention to intentional behavior than accidental behavior when making attributions, especially if the behavior is unexpected

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Critical period

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A time during development during which exposure to language is essential for eventual development of the effective use of language; occurs between two years of age and puberty

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Crystallized intelligence

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Cognitive capacity to understand relationships or solve problems using information acquired during schooling and other experiences

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Cultural relativism

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The theory that social groups and cultures must be studied on their own terms to be understood

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Cultural sensititivy

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Recognizing and respecting the differences between cultures

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Cultural syndrome

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A shared set of beliefs attitudes, norms, values, and behaviors organized around a central theme and found among people who speak the same language and share a geographic region

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Deductive reasoning

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A form of cognition that starts with general information and narrows down that information to create a conclusion

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Defense mechanism

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In Freudian psychoanalysis, a technique used by the ego that denies, falsifies, or distorts reality in order to resolve anxiety caused by undesirable urges of the id and superego

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Deindividuation

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The idea that people will lose a sense of self-awareness and can act dramatically differently based on the influence of a group

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Delusions

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Fixed, false beliefs that are discordant with reality and not shared by one's culture, and are maintained in spite of strong evidence to the contrary

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Demographic transition

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The transition from high birth and mortality rates to low birth and mortality rates, seen as a country develops from a pre-industrial to an industrialized economic system

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Demographics

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The statistical arm of sociology, which attempts to characterize and explain populations by quantitative analysis

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Depressant

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Any substance that reduces nervous system function

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Depressive episode

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A period of at least two weeks in which there is a prominent and persistent depressed mood or lack of interest and at least four other depressive symptoms

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Deviance

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The violation of norms, rules, or expectations wtihin a society

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Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM)

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The guide by which most psychological disorders are characterized, described, and diagnosed; currently in its fifth edition

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Diencephalon

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A portion of the prosencephalon that becomes the thalamus, hypothalamus, posterior pituitar gland, and the pineal gland

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Disconfirmation principle

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the idea that states that if evidence obtained during testing does not confirm a hypothesis, then the hypothesis is discarded or revised

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Discrimination

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In Classical Conditioning, the process by which two similar but distinct conditioned stimuli produce different responses; in sociology, when individuals of a particular group are treated differently than others based on their group

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Dishabituation

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A sudden increase in response to a stimulus, usually due to a change in the stimulus or addition of another stimulus; sometimes called resensitization

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Displacement

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A defense mechanism by which undesired urges are transferred form one target to another, more acceptable one

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Display rules

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Cultural expectations of how emotions can be expressed

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Dispositional (internal) attributions

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attributions that relate to the decisions or personality of the person whose behavior is being considered

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Dissociative disorders

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Disorders that involve a perceived separation from identity or the environment

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Distant networks

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Networks that are looser and composed of weaker ties

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Distress

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The stress response to unpleasant stressors

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Divided attention

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The ability to attend to multiple stimului simultaneously and to perform multiple tasks at the same time

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Dominant hemisphere

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The side of the brain that provides analytic, language, logic, and math skills; in most individuals, the left hemisphere

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Dopamine

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A neurotransmitter associated with smooth movements, steady posture, the reward pathway, and psychosis (a severe disorder where thought and emotions are so impaired that contact is lost with external reality)

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Dramaturgical approach

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An impression management theory that represents the world as a stage of individuals as actors performing to an audience

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Drive reduction theory

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A theory that explains motivation as being based on the goal of eliminating uncomfortable internal states

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Drives

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Deficiencies that activate particular behaviors focused on a goal

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Dyssomnia

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A sleep disorder which one has difficulty falling asleep, staying awake, or avoiding sleep

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Ecstasy

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Common name for MDMA; a CNS stimulant with effects similar to both amphetamines and hallucinogens

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Ego

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In Freudian psychoanalysis, the part of the unconscious mind that mediates the urges of the id and superego; operates under the reality principle

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Egocentrism

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Self-centered view of the world in which one is not necessarily able to understand the experience of another person; seen in Piaget's preoperational stage

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Elaboration likelihood model

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A theory in which attitudes are formed and changed through different routes of information processing based on the degree of deep thought given to persuasive information

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Elaborative rehearsal

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The association of information in short-term memory to information already stored in long-term memory; aids in long term storage

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Electroencephalography

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A test used to study the electrical patterns of the brain under varying conditions; consists of multiple electrodes placed on the scalp

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Emotion

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A feeling and state of mind derived from circumstances, mood, or relationships

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Emotional support

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Listing to, affirming, and empathizing with someone's feelings as part of social support

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Empathy

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The ability to vicariously experience the emotions of another

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Encoding

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The process of receiving information and preparing it for storage; can be automatic or effortful

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Endorphins

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Natural painkillers produced by the brain

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Epinephrine

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A neurotransmitter associated with the fight-or-flight reponse

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Errors of growth

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Misuse of grammar characterized by universal application of a rule, regardless of exceptions; seen in children during language development

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Escape learning

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A form of negative reinforcement in which one reduces the unpleasantness of something that already exists

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Esteem support

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Affirming qualities and skills of the person as part of social support

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Ethnicity

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A social construct that sorts people by cultural factors, including language, nationality, religion, and other factors. These factors can be changed or perceived differently by someone else, unlike race

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Ethnocentrism

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The practice of making judgements about other cultures based on the values and beliefs of one's own culture

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Eustress

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The stress response to positive conditions

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Explicit memory

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Memory that requires conscious recall, divided into facts (semantic memory) and experiences (episodic memory); also known as declarative memory

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Extinction

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In classical conditioning, the decrease in response resulting from repeated presentation of the conditioned stimulus without the presence of the unconditioned stimulus

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Extraversion

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In trait theory, the degree to which an individual is able to tolerate social interaction and stimulation

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Extrinsic motivation

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Motivation thats external, or outside the self, including rewards or punishments

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Family group

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A group determined by birth, adoption, and marriage rather than self-selection (as in a peer group)

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Fertility rate

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The average number of children born to a woman in her lifetime in a population

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Fixation

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In Freudian psychoanalysis, the result of overindulgence or frustration during a psychosexual stage causing a neurotic pattern of personality based on that stage

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Flat affect

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Behavior characterized by showing virtually no signs of emotion or affective expression

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Fluid intelligence

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Ability to quickly identify relationships and connections, and then use those relationships and connects to make correct deductions

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Foraging

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The act of searching for and exploting food resources

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Frebrain

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A portion of the brain that is associated with complex perceptual, cognitive, and behavioral processes such as emotion and memory

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Fornix

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A long projection from the hippocampus that connects to other nuclei in the limbic system

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Front stage

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In the dramaturgical approach, the setting where players are in front of an audience and perform roles that are in keeping with the image they hope to project about themselves

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Frontal lobe

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A portion of the cerebral cortex that controls motor processing, executive function, and the integration of cognitive and behavioral processes

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Functional fixedness

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The inability to identify uses for an object beyond its usual purpose

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Functionalism

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A theoretical framework that explains how parts of society fit together to create a cohesive whole

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Fundamental attribution error

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The general bias toward making dispositional attributions rather than situational attributions when analyzing another person's behavior

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Game theory

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A model that explains social interaction and decision-making as a game, including strategies, incentives and punishments

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Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)

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A neurotransmitter associated with stabilizing and quelling brain activity

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Ganglia

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Collections of neuron cell bodies found outside the CNS

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Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft

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Theory that distinguishes between two major types of groups: communities (Gemeinschaft), which share beliefs, ancestry, or geography; and societies (Gesellschaft), which work together toward a common goal

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Gender

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The set of behavioral, cultural, or psychological traits typically associated wtih a biological sex

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Generalization

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In classical conditioning, the process by which two distinct but similar stimuli come to produce the same response

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Genotypes

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The genetic makeup of an individual

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Gestalt principles

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Ways for the brain to infer missing parts of a picture when a picture is incomplete

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Globalization

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The process of integrating the global economy with free trade and tapping of foreign labor markets

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Group

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A social entity that involves at least two people, usually those sharing common characteristics

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Group conformity

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Compliance with a group's goals, even when the group's goals may be in direct contrast to an individual's goals

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Group polarization

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The tendency toward decisions that are more extreme than the individual inclinations of the group members

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Groupthink

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The tendency for groups to make decisions based on the ideas and solutions that arise within the group without considering outside ideas and ethics; based on pressure to conform and remain loyal to the group

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Gyrus

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A ridge of the cerebral cortex

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Habituation

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A decrease in response caused by repeated exposure to a stimulus

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Hallucinations

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Perceptions that are not due to external stimuli but have a compelling sense of reality

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Hallucinogens

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A group of drugs that cause distortions of reality in users, including LSD and mushrooms

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Halo effect

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A cognitive bias in which judgments of an individual's character can be affected by overall impression of the individual

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Heterosexual

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A sexual orientation wherein individuals are attracted to members of the opposite sex

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Heuristic

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A rule of thumb or shortcut that is used to make decisions

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Hindbrain

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A portion of the brain that controls balance, motor coordination, breathing, digestion, and general arousal processes

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Hippocampus

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A portion of the limbic system that is important for memory and learning

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Homosexual

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A sexual orientation wherein individuals are attracted to members of the same sex

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Hypnagogic hallucinations

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Hallucinations that occur when going to sleep; seen in narcolepsy

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Hypnopompic hallucinations

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Hallucinations that occur when awakening from sleep; seen in narcolepsy

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Hypnosis

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An altered state of consciousness in which a person appears to be awake, but in fact, in a highly suggestible state in which another person or event may trigger action by the person

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Hypothalamus

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A portion of the forebrain that controls homeostatic and endocrine functions by controlling the release of pituitary hormones

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Id

Back 170

In Freudian psychoanalysis, the part of the unconscious resulting from basic, instinctual urges for sexuality and survival; operates under the pleasure principle and seeks instant gratification

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Ideal self

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The person one would optimally like to be

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Identity

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A piece of an individual's self-concept based on the groups to which that person belongs and his or her relationships to others

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Immediate networks

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Networks that are dense with strong ties; generally overlap with distant networks

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Implicit memory

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Memory that does not require conscious recall; consists of skills and conditioned behaviors

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Implicit personality theory

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A theory that states that people tend to associate traits and behavior in others. and that people have the tendency to attribute their own beliefs, opinions, and ideas to others

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Impression management

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Behaviors that are intended to influence the perceptions of other people about a person, object, or event

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Incentive

Back 177

A reward intended to motivate particular behaviors

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Incidence

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The number of new cases of a disease per population at risk in a given period of time; usually, new cases per 1000 at-risk people per year

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Inclusive fitness

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A measure of reproductive success; depends on the number of offspring an individual has, how well they support their offspring, and how well their offspring can support others

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Individual discrimination

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One person discriminating against a particular person or group

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Inductive reasoning

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A form of cognition that utilizes generalizations to develop a theor

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Ingratiation

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An impression management strategy that uses flattery to increase social acceptance

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In-group

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A social group to which a person experiences a sense of belonging or one in which he or she identifies as a member

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Innate behavior

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A behavior that is genetically programmed or instinctive

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Insomnia

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Sleep disorder characterized by either an inability to fall asleep or difficultly staying asleep

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Instinct

Back 186

An innate behavioral response to stimuli

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Instinctive drift

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The tendency of animals to resist learning when a conditioned behavior conflicts with the animal's instinctive behaviors

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Institutional discrimination

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Discrimination against a particular person or group by an entire institution

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Intelligence quotient

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Numerical measurement of intelligence, usually accomplished by some form of standardized testing

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Interaction process analysis

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A technique of observing and immediately classifying the activities of a small group

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Interference

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A retrieval error caused by the learning of information; can be proactive (old information causes difficulty learning new information) or retroactive (new information interferes with older learning)

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Inter neuron

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A neuron found between sensory and motor neurons involved in the reflex arc

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Interpersonal attraction

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The force that makes people like each other

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Intrinsic motivation

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Motivation that is internal or that comes from within

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Intuition

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Perceptions about a situation that may or may not be supported by available evidence, but are nonetheless perceived as information that may be used to make a decision

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Ipsilateral

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On the same side of the body, relative to something else (usually a side of the brain)

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James-Lange

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A theory of emotion that states that a stimulus results in a physiological arousal, which then leads to a secondary response in which emotion is consciously experienced

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Just-noticeable difference (jnd)

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The minimum difference in magnitude between two stimuli before one can perceive this difference; also called a difference threshold

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Just-world hypothesis

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The cognitive bias that good things happen to good people, and bad things happen to bad people

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Justice

Back 200

In medical ethics, the tenet that the physician has a responsibility to treat similar patients with similar care, and to distribute healthcare resources fairly

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Language

Back 201

Spoken or written symbols (verbal and nonverbal symbols), which are regulated according to certain rules of conduct or social norms and used for communication

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Language acquisition device (LAD)

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An innate capacity for language acquisition that is triggered by exposure to language; part of the nativist (biological) perspective of language acquisition

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Learned helplessness

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A state of hopelessness and resignation resulting from being unable to avoid repeated negative stimuli; often used as a model of depression

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Learning (behaviorist) theory

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A theory that attitudes are developed through forms of learning (direct contact, direct interaction, direct instruction, and conditioning)

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Libido

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In Freudian psychoanalysis, the sex or life drive

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Limbic system

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A portion of the cerebrum that is associated with emotion and memory and includes the amygdala and hippocampus

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Linguistic relativity hypothesis

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A hypothesis suggesting that one's perception of reality is largely determined by the content, form, and structure of language; also known as the Whorfian hypothesis

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Locus of control

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The characterization of the source of influences on the events in one's life; can be internal or external

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Long- term potentiation

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The strengthening of neural connections due to rehearsal or relearning; thought to be the neurophysiological basis of long-term memory

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Maintenance rehearsal

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Repetition of a piece of information to either keep it within working memory or to store it

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Managing appearances

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An impression management strategy in which one uses props, appearance, emotional expression, or associations with other to create a positive image

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Manic episode

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A period of at least one week with prominent and persistent elevated or expansive mood and at least two other manic symptom

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Master status

Back 213

A status with which a person is most identified

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Mate choice

Back 214

The intersexual selection of a mate based on attraction and traits

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Material culture

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The physical items one associates with a given cultural group

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Material support

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Providing economic or other physical resources to aid a person as part of social support

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Mating system

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The way in which a group organizes its sexual behavior and sexual relationship

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Meditation

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A state of consciousness entered voluntarily, characterized by a decreased level of physiological arousal and a quieting of the mind

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Medulla oblongata

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A portion of the brainstem that regulates vital functions, including breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure

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Melatonin

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A serotonin derivative secreted by the pineal gland that is associated with sleepiness

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Meninges

Back 221

A think layer of connective tissue that covers and protects the brain; composed of the dura mater, arachnoid mater, and pia mater

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Mental set

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A tendency to repeat solutions that have yielded positive results at some time in the past

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Meritocracy

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A society in which advancement up the social ladder is based on intellectual talent and achievement

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Mesencephalon

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The embryonic portion of the brain that becomes the midbrain

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Metencephalon

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The embryonic portion of the brain that becomes the pons and cerebellum

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Midbrain

Back 226

A portion of the brainstem that manages sensorimotor reflexes to visual and auditory stimuli and gives rise to some cranial nerve

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Misinformation effect

Back 227

A phenomenon in which memories are altered by misleading information provided at the point of encoding or recall

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Mnemonic

Back 228

A technique that aids in memory recall