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24 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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A number of children in a 3rd-grade class caught the flu (the phenomenon). The children ate different foods, studied different things, had different after-school activities, were getting different grades, etc. It was discovered that all of the sick children had been coughed upon by Flo. Which method leads one to believe that Flu Flo's coughs caused the children to get sick?
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Agreement.
Common antecedent condition (circumstances): being coughed upon. Phenomenon: getting the flu. |
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Part of the damage to the aircraft could be attributed to its impact with the ground. Another part was definitely due to the wind shear that the plane experienced as it fell from the sky. However, some of the damage cannot be accounted for by either of these factors. Investigators are examining this evidence closely for evidence of explosives. What method is at work here?
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Residues.
Phenomenon: damage to plane. Most of the damage is accounted for, so the residual damage may be caused by the remaining possible cause (explosives). |
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"If two or more instances of the phenomenon under investigation have only one circumstance in common, the circumstance in which alone all the instances agree, is the cause (or effect) of the given phenomenon."--J. S. Mill
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agreement
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A method for identifying a causal connection between two conditions by matching changes in one condition with changes in another.
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concomitant variation
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A method for identifying a causal connection between instances of an effect (the phenomenon) and a single factor that is present in several occurrences in which the effect is present.
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agreement
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A veterinarian weighs a dog by stepping on the scale with the dog in her arms; if her own weight is 130 pounds, and the scale reads 150, then the dog must weigh 20 pounds. The residual effect (the extra pounds on the scale reading) was due to a specific factor: the weight of the dog. Which method?
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residues.
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A method of identifying a causal connection by subtracting already-known strands of causal connection from a compound causal connection. If a range of factors are believed to cause a range of phenomena, and we have matched all the factors, except one, with all the phenomena, except one, then the remaining phenomenon can be attributed to the remaining factor.
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residues
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"If two or more instances in which the phenomenon occurs have only one circumstance in common, while two or more instances in which it does not occur have nothing in common save the absence of that circumstance: the circumstance in which alone the two sets of instances differ, is the effect, or cause, or a necessary part of the cause, of the phenomenon."--J. S. Mill
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Joint method of agreement and difference.
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A method for identifying a causal connection between an effect and a single factor that is present in an occurrence in which the effect (the phenomenon) is present, and absent from an occurrence in which the effect (the phenomenon) is absent.
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difference
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A method of identifying a single condition that is present in two or more occurrences in which the phenomenon in question is present and that is absent from two or more two or more occurrences in which the phenomenon is absent, but never present when the phenomenon is absent nor absent when the phenomenon is present.
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Joint method of agreement and difference
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A B C occur together with x y z
B is known to be the cause of y C is known to be the cause of z —————————————————— Therefore A is the cause or effect of x. |
residues.
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“If an instance in which the phenomenon under investigation occurs, and an instance in which it does not occur, have every circumstance in common save one, that one occurring only in the former; the circumstance in which alone the two instances differ, is the effect, or the cause, or an indispensable part of the cause, of the phenomenon.”--J. S. Mill
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difference
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"Whatever phenomenon varies in any manner whenever another phenomenon varies in some particular manner, is either a cause or an effect of that phenomenon, or is connected with it through some fact of causation."--J. S. Mill
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concomitant variatioins
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"Deduct from any phenomenon such part as is known by previous inductions to be the effect of certain antecedents, and the residue of the phenomenon is the effect of the remaining antecedents."-- J. S. Mill
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Residues
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A B C D occur together with w x y z
B C D occur together with x y z —————————————————— Therefore A is the cause, or the effect, or a part of the cause of w. |
Difference
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A B C occur together with x y z
A± B C results in x± y z. ————————————————————— Therefore A and x are causally connected |
concomitant variation
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A B C D occur together with w x y z
A E F G occur together with w t u v —————————————————— Therefore A is the cause of w. |
agreement
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A B C occur together with x y z
A D E occur together with x v w also B C occur with y z —————————————————— Therefore A is the cause, or the effect, or a part of the cause of x. |
Joint method of agreement and difference
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Mr. O wondered why his house was drafty. He decided that the excessive draftiness probably was caused by leaky older windows, bad dampers on the fireplaces, and the outside doors opening and closing many time a day. After improving the situation with new windows and new fireplace dampers, he decided that the rest of the drafts were the result of the use of the outside doors.
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Residues.
The complex phenomenon is the draftiness of the house and much of the draft seems to be explained by air leakage through the windows and the chimneys. The residual draft is the result of all the visitors coming and going. The White House -- once called a glamorous prison by Harry Truman, is visited by more than 6,000 people every single day. |
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Cookies, potato chips, and juice appear one day shortly after Mary, Sally, and Sue arrive for work. We know that Mary only brought potato chips and Sally only brought juice. Therefore, we suspect that Sue has brought the cookies.
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Residues.
The food-appearance phenomenon is partly explained by what Mary and Sally brought. The food remainder is explained by the remainder person. |
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The cookie jar was supplied with cookies on Saturday. They were being saved for Tuesday. All the cookies were still there on Sunday, but when Johnny returned from visiting his grandmother on Monday, cookies went missing. We suspect Johnny is the thief. Which method?
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Difference.
The phenomenon (correct cookie accounting) disappears when Johnny comes home. That is the only apparent difference in circumstance between the cases. |
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The number of cookies missing from the cookie jar in the morning is proportional to the number of crumbs on Johnny's shirt.
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Concomitant variations.
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We observe the following sets of conditions:
A B C a b c A D E a b c B C b c To conclude that "A" causes "a" we would be using which method? |
Joint method of agreement and difference.
We conclude that "A" is related to "a" because "a" only occurs when "A" occurs, and never occurs when "A" is a absent. |
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Cookies are always missing from the cookie jar whenever Johnny is in a group of children, and never when Johnny is missing from one or more of those same groups. This does not apply to any other child. We therefore suspect Johnny as the thief. Which method points to Johnny as the thief?
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Joint method of agreement and difference
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