Linguistics

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phonology

Back 1

rules for combining sounds into words

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morphology

Back 2

rules by which these meaningful units combine to form words

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sign

Back 3

piece of symbolism

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signifier

Back 4

the symbol itself

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signified

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the thing the symbol stands for

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arbitrary

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no direct, necessary connection between signifier and the signified

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prescriptive

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Following the practice of a socially determined “standard” in constructing utterances

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Descriptive

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Following a system of (unconscious) rules in constructing utterances

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constituent

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a word or a group of words that functions as a single unit within a hierarchical structure

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syntactically ambiguous

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more than one syntactic structure

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morpheme

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Morphemes combine together to create words, smallest unit of meaning

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Free morpheme

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a morpheme that can stand on its own

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Bound morpheme

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a morpheme that must attach to another morpheme

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simple words

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contain only one morpheme

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complex words

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contain more than one morpheme

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Affixes

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attach to roots in word-formation rules

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prefixes

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Affixes which precede the root

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suffixes

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Affixes which follow the root

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Inflectional affixes

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Only change the grammatical form of a word, creates new word forms

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Derivational affixes

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Create new words when they’re attached to roots

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free morpheme

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Roots are typically free morphemes that cannot be analyzed into smaller parts
When a root morpheme is combined with an affix it is called a stem

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bound morpheme

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cannot stand alone

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Derivational morphemes

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may change the syntactic word class and/or the meaning of the root

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Inflectional morphemes

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never change the syntactic class of the word. Instead, they are added to complete words with tense, number or other grammatical information

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“Cranberry” morphemes, or “cran-morphs”

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roots which are always bound, and which have no intrinsic meaning

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Back formation

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removal of an (incorrectly perceived) affix to form a new word

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Circumfixation affix

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goes around the root

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Compounding

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Combination of two or more free morphemes to make a new word

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Reduplication

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repetition of all or part of the stem

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morpho-phonological alternation

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sounds are changed inside the root

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Suppletion

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inflected word forms have different roots

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analytic languages

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mostly free morphemes

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synthetic languages

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many bound morphemes

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Agglutinating Languages

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morphemes are ‘strung together like beads.’

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Fusional Languages

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stems and affixes tend to be ‘fused’ and, thus, less easily teased apart

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Polysynthetic languages

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many morphemes may be incorporated into highly complex, and often very long, words

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Allomorphy

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Sometimes an affix changes form, depending on what kind of root it attaches to.

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Blocking

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Productivity can sometimes be limited by the existence of other words

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Clipping

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shortening of an existing word

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Blending

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melding together parts of two words

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Conversion

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usage of an existing word in a new syntactic category

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Referents

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the place/entity that fits those truth conditions

Names: a single referent
Common nouns: a class of referents

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Substitutivity

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For nouns “equality” of reference doesn’t lend identity in meaning

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Sense

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a set of truth conditions; aspect of meaning that relates to the use of a Noun Phrase in a situation

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Noun Phrase meaning

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determined by combining its reference with the sense provided by the usage context

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Non-intersection adjectives

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do not require reference to the objects denoted by the nouns

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Anti-intersection adjectives

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cannot refer to the object denoted by the noun

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the Location role

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an option for all verbs, so doesn’t need to be specified in the lexical entry

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the realize rule

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assigns the Experiencer role to its subject NP, and the Experiencer must be an animate entity capable of cognition

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Lexical Decomposition

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words have meanings “built up” from simpler meanings (conceptual features)

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Superordinate/Hypernym

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A word with broad meaning that other words fall under

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Subordinate/Hyponyms

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The meaning of one word is included in the meaning of another word

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Subordinate/Hyponyms: Entailment

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A sentence A entails a sentence B iff sentence B is true in all the situations where sentence A is true

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Synonyms

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Different word forms with shared conceptual features

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Antonyms

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Different word forms with semantic features in a special relationship (opposite)

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Homophones

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have the same pronunciation but different spellings and meanings

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Homonyms

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have the same pronunciation and spelling, but different meanings

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Semantics

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Linguistic context: within the sentence or discourse

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Pragmatics

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Situational context: within a particular situation in a shared reality

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Sentence

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a string of words put together by the grammatical rules of a language

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Utterance

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the use of a sentence, in a particular context

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direct speech act

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occurs when a particular sentence type is being used to serve its typical function