Linguistics

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Branches of Phonetics

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acoustic (sound transmission)

auditory (sound perception + processing)

articulatory (sound production -> linguistics)

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voiced and voiceless consonants

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voiced: vibrating - airflow coming through the windpipe

voiceless: no vibrating

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Manner of Articulation: obstruents

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airflow is strongly obstructed

plosive (stop): airstream is blocked due to two articulators touching each other, air is built up in the vocal tract and suddenly released [p], [t], [k]

fricative: continuous stream of air passes through a narrow opening, produces friction and a hissing sound [f], [s], [ʃ]

affricate: combination of a plosive and a fricative; airstream is completely blocked, air is built up, which is then released (like a plosive) and continued (like a fricative) [tʃ], [dʒ]

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Manner of Articulation: Sonorants

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usually voiced

nasal: by lowering the velum the air passes out through the nasal cavity [m], [n]

approximant: articulators touch or approach each other without audible friction

-> liquid [l], [r]

-> semi-vowel [w], [j]

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[p]

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voiceless bilabial plosive

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[b]

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voiced bilabial plosive

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[t]

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voiceless alveolar plosive

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[d]

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voiced alveolar plosive

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[k]

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voiceless velar plosive

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[g]

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voiced velar plosive

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[f]

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voiceless labiodental fricative

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[v]

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voiced labiodental fricative

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[θ]

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voiceless dental fricative

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[ð]

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voiced dental fricative

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[s]

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voiceless alveolar fricative

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[z]

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voiced alveolar fricative

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[ʃ]

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voiceless palatoalveolar fricative

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[ʒ]

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voiced palatoalveolar fricative

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[h]

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voiceless glottal fricative

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[tʃ]

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voiceless palatoalveolar affricate

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[dʒ]

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voiced palatoalveolar affricate

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[m]

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voiced bilabial nasal

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[n]

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voiced alveolar nasal

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[ŋ]

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voiced velar nasal

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[l]

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voiced alveolar liquid

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[r]

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voiced post-alveolar liquid

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[w]

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voiced bilabial semi-vowel

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[j]

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voiced palatal semi-vowel

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Vowels

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air passes through the oral cavity relatively freely

generally voiced

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Vowel Diagram

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Height of the Tongue: high, mid, low

Part of the Tongue: front, central, back

Lip rounding: rounded vs unrounded

Vowel length: how long the tongue remains in a particular position: short (lax) or long (tense)

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Monophthongs

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tongue stable

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Diphthongs

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tongue glides

closing (ending in [ɪ], [ʊ])

centering (ending in schwa-sound [ə])

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Transcription

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Representing sounds (pronunciation) in writing

orthography =/= pronunciation

-> different spelling for same sounds

-> same spelling for different sounds

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phonetics vs phonology

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Phonemic transcription

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captures as many aspects of a specific pronunciation as possible using diacritics

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Phonemic transcription

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ignores as many details as possible; captures only enough aspects of a pronunciation to show how that word differs from other words in the language

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Weak vowels

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only in unstressed syllables

[i] happy

[u] situation

[schwa] helpless

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closing diphthongs

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centring diphthongs

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phoneme

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smallest meaning-distinguishing unit of a language

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morpheme

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smallest meaning-bearing unit of language

{SING}

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Morphology

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- internal structure of words

- processes that allow us to create

-> new lexemes/words (word formation, derivation...)

-> forms by encoding grammatical meaning (inflection)

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types of morphemes

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types of morphemes 2

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free morpheme

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{DOG} {THE}

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bound morpheme

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{-MENT} {-ER}

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Free, lexical morpheme

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{DOG}

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Free, grammatical morpheme

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{THE}

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Bound, lexical morpheme (derivational)

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{-MENT}

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Bound, grammatical morpheme (inflectional)

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{-ER}

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derivation

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attach lexical morphemes

word formation (-> word class change)

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inflection

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attack grammatical morphemes

grammatical meanings

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8 types of inflectional morphemes

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{PLURAL}

{POSSESSIVE}

{3RD SG. IND. PRESENT}

{PAST}

{PRES. PART}

{PAST PART}

{COMPARATIVE}

{SUPERLATIVE}

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Morphophonemics/Morphophonology

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interface between morphology and phonology

morphemes are abstract linguistic signs that have a meaning (e.g. {PLURAL}) and a phonological form

the actual phonological form of a morpheme can vary

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Allomorph

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Different concrete phonological realisations of the same morpheme

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Allophone

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Different concrete phonetic realisations of the same phoneme

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{PLURAL} allomorphs

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/-ɪz/ after sibilants /z/, /s/, sh, etc

/-z/ after other voiced consonants

/-s/ after other voicel. consonants

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Zero allomorph

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{PLURAL} allomorph in sheep,

sheep + Ø

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{PAST} allomorphs

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/-ɪd/ after alveolar plosives

/-d/ after other voiced sounds

/-t/ after other voicel. consonants

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Base allomorphy

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Sometimes an inflection changes the base of a lexeme

wife-wives

weep-wept

good-better

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{3RD PERS SG PRES} allomorph

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/-ɪz/ after sibilants

/-z/ after other voiced sounds

/-s/ after other voiceless sounds

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Suppletion

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after inflection: forms do not resemble each other, nor are they etymologically related

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phonological conditioning

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/-ɪz/, /-z/, /-s/

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lexical conditioning

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allomorph is restricted to individual lexemes

ox-oxen

sheep-sheep

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grammatical conditioning

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base allomorphy: addition of a grammatical morpheme changes base morpheme

weep-wept

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3 stages of new lexeme formation

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- Nonce/ad hoc formations

- Institutionalisation

- Lexicalisation

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Derivation by affixation

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Lexeme (free lexical morpheme) + bound lexical morpheme = new lexeme

prefixation and suffixation

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Compounding

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stringing together of two or more free lexical morphemes to one complex free morpheme, the compound

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4 semantic types of compounds

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- endocentric:

modifier + head

airsick, living room, ready-made

- exocentric:

head refers to implied meaning

redneck

- appositional:

head + head

actor-director

- copulative:

head + head

bittersweet

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Conversion

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Derivation without affixation

noun -> verb: to bottle, to butter

adjective -> verb: to better, to calm

word formation or syntax (ellipsis)?

verb -> noun: a cough, a coverword formation or syntax (ellipsis)? adjective -> noun: the poor (people), a daily (newspaper)

adjective -> noun: the poor (people), a daily (newspaper)

Modelled as zero-derivation:

- a bottle + Ø -> to bottle

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5 types of shortenings

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clippings: part of a word is omitted

ad, app, mic, phone, flu

blends: two words are merged

sitcom, Brangelina, spork

acronyms: initialisms that are pronounced like words

NATO, laser, asap, radar

alphabetisms: initialisms that are pronounced letter by letter

CD, PC, YMCA, tba

back-formations: result of taking away a real or putative derivational suffix, resulting in a base that did not exist before

television - televize

contraception - contracept

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Semantics

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Study of meaning (of words, phrases, sentences)

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Semantics relation to other branches of linguistics

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Denotation

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The (abstract) class of objects to which the term can be potentially applied.

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Connotation

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The (affective or emotional) associations a lexeme elicits or the attitudes a particular lexeme conveys (as opposed to another lexeme with roughly the same denotation).

Not necessarily shared by all speakers of a language, but above the level of idiosyncratic variation.

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Syntagmatic Relations

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hold between items which occur in the same sentence

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Paradigmatic Relations

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reflect the semantic choices available for a particular syntactic slot in a sentence

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Lexical/semantic fields

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groups of words which cover different (or partly overlapping - > semantically ambiguous) areas within the same extralinguistic domain

-> members of a semantic field are in a paradigmatic relationship

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Onomasiology

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function - expression

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Semasiology

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expression - function

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Expressive meaning

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attached feelings, evaluations, opinions, speaker judgments

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Descriptive meaning

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conceptual: (cognitive) content ('image') a lexeme evokes

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Social meaning

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meaning components that convey or signal social information/statuses:

a) area of discourse

(technical VS everyday vocabulary)

b) channel

(spoken vs written, e-mail, twitter)

c) style

(formal, neutral, informal)

d) dialects/regiolects

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Paradigmatic Sense Relations

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Refers to the relations that hold between one sense of a lexeme and the/a sense of another lexeme (especially regarding choices inside semantic fields)

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Synonymy

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Semantic equivalence or extensive semantic similarity

-> descriptive synonymy:

interchangeability in many but not

all contexts

- connotations

- style/register

- regional/social

- collocations

-> total synonymy:

interchangeability in all contexts

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Antonymy & Oppositeness

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binary antonyms (complementaries)

either-or relationship

asleep - awake

dead - alive

converses/relational opposites

same situations from different perspectives

teacher - pupil

older - younger

give - take

gradable antonyms (contraries)

opposite poles of a continuum

hot - cold

old - young

male - female

directional opposites/reversives

involve a change of direction (especially motion in different directions)

open - shut

push - pull

button - unbutton

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Hyponym

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subordinate term

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Hyperonym

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superordinate term

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Heteronyms (Co-Hyponymy)

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words on the same hierarchical level

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Hyponymy

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is-a sub/superordinate relationship

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Meronymy

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has-a/part-whole relationship

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Meronym

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part of something

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Holonym

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the whole

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Monosemy

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If a lexeme has one descriptive meaning (sense), it is monosemous

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Polysemy

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Lexemes that have more than one descriptive meaning (multiple senses) (=members of more than one lexical field with distinct sense relations)

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Homonymy

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same pronunciation + spelling

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Homophony

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same pronunciation + different spelling

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Homography

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same spelling + different pronunciation

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Polysemy vs Homonymy

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Types of Morphemes

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Sentence constiuents

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Sense relations

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Homonymy

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Semantics vs Pragmatics

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Deictic dimensions

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person, place, time

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further types of deictic expression

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social, discourse, manner and degree

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Types of Deixis

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Use of deictic expression

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Illocutionary acts

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-Assertives or representatives are used to describe the world (e.g. state, express, claim, tell,...)

-Directives are attempts to get people to do things (e.g. give an order, ask something)

-By means of commissives speakers commit themselves to a future action which will change the world in some way (e.g. by promising, threatening)

-We use expressives to express our feelings and opinions; offer a glimpse of the hearer's psychological state (e.g. thank, greet, congratulate, apologize, complain)

-Declarations essentially serve to bring about a new external situation; they show that the world can indeed be changed by language (e.g. baptisms, marriages, divorces, declarations of war); requires extra-linguistic institutions

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3 major sentence types

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declarative, interrogative, imperative

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Grice's Cooperative Principle

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Types of inferences

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Morphology

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