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63 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Attachment |
– Enduring emotional bond between one animal or person and another (Ainsworth, 1989) – Essential to the survival of the infant (Bowlby, 1988) |
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How do Infants try to maintain contact with caregivers to whom they are attached. |
• Make eye contact • Pull and tug at them • Asked to be picked up |
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Separation anxiety |
– Behaviors such as thrashing about, fussing, crying, screeching, or whining when contact with the caregiver is lost |
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“Strange situation” method |
– Infant exposed to a series of separations and reunions with a caregiver (usually the mother) and a stranger who is a confederate of the researchers – Developed by Ainsworth et al. |
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Secure attachment (most infants in the US) |
– Mildly protest mother’s departure – Seek interaction when reunited – Are readily comforted by mother – Are happier, more sociable, and more cooperative with caregivers – Get along better with peers and are better adjusted at school at 5 and 6 years old |
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Avoidant attachment |
– Infants least distressed by mother’s departure – Play without fuss when alone and ignore mothers when they return |
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Ambivalent/resistant attachment |
– Infants are most emotional – Show severe signs of distress when mothers leave and are ambivalent upon their return – Alternate clinging to mother with pushing her away |
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Disorganized/disoriented attachment |
– Babies seem dazed, confused, disoriented; behaviors are contradictory |
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Attachment related to quality of care |
– Secure infants have parents who are more affectionate, cooperative, and predictable than parents of insecure infants. – Parents respond more favorably to infant’s smiles and cries. • |
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Security is related to the infant’s temperament |
– Mothers of “difficult” children are less responsive to them. – Mothers report feeling more distant from infant |
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Stability of Attachment |
• Attachment can change due to family dynamics. • Adopted children of various ages show secure attachment to adoptive family. • Early attachment patterns endure into middle childhood, adolescence, and even adulthood. |
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Stages of Attachment |
• Ainsworth study on Ugandan infants identified three phases of attachment 1) Initial-preattachment phase 2) Attachment-in-the-making phase 3) Clear-cut attachment phase
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Initial-preattachment phase |
• Birth to 3 months of age • Characterized by indiscriminate attachment |
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Attachment-in-the-making phase |
• 3 to 4 months of age • Characterized by preference for familiar figures
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Clear-cut attachment phase |
• 6 to 7 months of age • Characterized by intensified dependence on the primary caregiver, usually the mother |
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Theories of Attachment • Behavioral view |
– Attachment behaviors are conditioned due to infant’s needs being met by caregiver; caregiver associated with gratification |
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Psychoanalytic view |
– Caregiver or “mother” becomes a love object who forms basis for all later attachments (Freud) – Sense of trust has to be established in first year of life (Erikson) |
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Caregiver as source of contact comfort |
– Study by Harlow and Harlow on rhesus monkey infants – Indicated that humans may have a need for contact comfort that is as basic as need for food |
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Ethological view |
– Attachment is an inborn or instinctive response to a specific stimulus – Social smiles help infant to survive by eliciting affection from the family social structure – Attachment in nonhumans occurs during critical period of life – First object seen is imprinted on the young animal (Lorenz, 1962, 1981) |
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Bowlby and Ainsworth maintain that if critical period exists in humans, ....... |
it can extend for months or years |
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Harlow and Harlow study |
– Found that rhesus infants reared in isolation cowered in the presence of other monkeys; they did not defend themselves – Instead, they sat in a corner, clutching themselves and rocking back and forth • Older deprived infant monkeys became more social when placed with younger monkeys. – Same was found to be true with socially withdrawn 4- and 5-year-old children |
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Spitz (1965) study of institutionalized children |
– Found children to show withdrawal and depression – Some infants showed the same rocking back and forth as the rhesus monkeys • The age of the child contributes to how well the child can overcome social deprivation |
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Study on Guatemalan children by Kagan and Klein (1973) |
indicates children may be able to recover from 13 or 14 months of deprivation |
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Study by Skeels (1966) |
found 19-month-old retarded children when placed in care of older institutionalized girls made dramatic gains in IQ scores, whereas the other children remaining in the orphanage declined in IQ. |
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% of parents have engaged in some sort of psychological or emotional abuse ranging from pushing to using a knife or a gun on a child (by age 2). |
90 |
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# of American children neglected or abused each year by parents or caregivers |
3 million |
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# of children sexually abused |
150,000 of 3 million children – Sexually abused – Girls make up the majority of sexually abused – Boys make up one-third to one-fourth of the sexually abused |
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% of cases of child abuse and neglect go unreported (estimated). |
50-60 |
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Effects of Child Abuse |
• Abused children show high incidence of personal and social problems as well as psychological disorders. • Less securely attached to parents • Less intimate with peers and more aggressive, angry, and noncompliant than other children • Reduced self-esteem and school performance • Greater risk of delinquency, risky sexual behavior, and substance abuse • Adults abused as children more likely to act aggressively toward their partners |
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Causes of Child Abuse |
• Stress • History of child abuse in at least one parent’s family of origin • Lack of adequate coping and childrearing skills • Unrealistic expectations of children • Substance abuse • Infants in pain and more difficult to soothe more likely to be abused • Cries of the infant found to be aversive to abusive parents • Disobedient, inappropriate, or unresponsive children more likely to be abused |
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What to Do about child abuse |
• Report abuse to the authorities. • Provide parenting training to the general population. • Target high-risk groups such as poor, single teen mothers and provide parenting programs or home visitors for them. • Present information about abuse and provide support for families. • Have child abuse hotlines for private citizens who suspect child abuse to get advice. – Parents who are having difficulty with aggressive impulses are also encouraged to call |
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Autism spectrum disorders |
– Impairment in communication skills and social interactions, and by repetitive, stereotyped behavior; evident by age 3; 1 in 152 American children have disorder • |
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Asperger’s disorder |
– Social deficits and stereotyped behavior; no significant cognitive or language delays associated with autism |
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Autism signs |
• Autism is 4 to 5 times more prevalent in boys. • Attachment to others is often weak or nonexistent • Show ritualistic behavior and intolerance to change • Development of speech lags • Show mutism, echolalia, and pronoun reversal – (Referring to self as “you” or “he” |
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Causes of Autism |
• Concordance rates for autism are about 60% among pairs of MZ twins. • No correlations between the development of autism and deficiencies in child rearing. • Biological factors play a key role. – LBW – Advanced maternal age – Neurological abnormalities • Brain-wave patterns • Neurotransmitter sensitivity • Unusual activity in motor region of cerebral cortex |
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Treatment of Autism |
• Treatment of autism is based on principles of learning, including behavior modification programs. • Intensive individual instruction has been found to be most effective. • Research on medications and their treatment of autism are under study. |
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Emotion |
– A state of feeling with physiological, situational, and cognitive components |
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True or False Facial expressions appear to be universal. |
True |
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Emotions in the first year of life |
– Infants show only a few emotions during the first few months. – Emotions are more apparent at end of first year of life. |
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Positive and aversive stimulation |
Infants have a positive attraction to pleasant stimulation and withdrawal from aversive stimulation. • . |
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Emotional development is linked to what 2 things |
Emotional development is linked to cognitive development and social experience |
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One study (Kochanska, 2001) assessed patterns of attachment using the “strange situation”. |
– Found that differences in emotional development were first related to attachment at the age of 14 months – Securely attached infants were less likely to show fear and anger even when exposed to situations designed to elicit these emotions (at 33 months). – Insecurely attached infants showed increase in negative emotions – Avoidant children grew more fearful – Resistant children became less joyful |
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Stranger anxiety |
– Is the development of the fear of strangers – Is normal and most infants develop it – Appears at 6 to 9 months of age – Older infants will display crying, whimpering, gazing fearfully, and crawling away – Peaks at 9 and 12 months of age – Declines in second year |
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Social referencing |
– Seeking out another person’s perception of a situation to help us form our own view of it – Infants display it as early as 6 months – Infants use caregiver’s facial expressions or tone of voice as clues on how to respond. |
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Social referencing requires what 3 things |
1) looking at another, usually older, individual in a novel, ambiguous situation 2) associating that individual’s emotional response with the unfamiliar situation 3) regulating our own emotional response in accord with the response of the older individual |
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Emotional regulation |
– Ways in which young children control their own emotions • Caregivers help infants learn to regulate their emotions |
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Children of secure mothers are |
– more likely to be secure themselves – more likely to regulate their own emotions in a positive manner |
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Adolescents who were secure as infants were |
most capable of regulating their emotions to interact cooperatively with their friends. |
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Self-concept has been measured using mirror technique, nose-touching technique |
– At 18 months, infants begin to touch their own noses upon looking into the mirror |
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How Self-awareness affects the infant’s social and emotional development. |
– Knowledge of self permits the infant and child to develop notions of sharing and cooperation with other children. |
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“self-conscious” emotions |
Self-awareness contributes to the development of the“self-conscious” emotions. – Embarrassment, envy, pride, guilt, and shame |
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Temperament |
– Stable way of reacting and adapting to the world that is present early in life – Believed to have a strong genetic component – |
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Temperament includes what |
Includes activity level, smiling and laughter, regularity in eating and sleep habits, approach and withdrawal, adaptability to new situations, intensity of responsiveness, general cheerfulness or unpleasantness, distractibility or persistence, soothability |
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Thomas and Chess (1989) identified three types of temperament |
– Easy child (40%) • regular sleep and feeding schedules, approaches new situations with enthusiasm, and is generally cheerful – Difficult child (10%) • irregular sleep and feeding schedules, is slow to accept new people, takes a long time adapting to new routines, and is prone to emotional outbursts – Slow-to-warm-up child (15%) • falls between the two categories |
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Temperament is related to what 2things later in life |
emotional adjustment and psychological disorders later in life. |
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Goodness of Fit |
• Temperament may be strengthened or weakened by the parents’ reaction to the child. • Difficult child may become more difficult due to rigidity of the parents – This would be an example of a poor fit between parent and child • Parents can positively modify difficult temperament child to achieve a goodness of fit. |
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Gender Differences |
• Girls tend to advance more rapidly in motor development in infancy than boys. • Girls and boys are similar in social behaviors. • Differentiation between “boy” and “girl” toys is made as early as 12 months old. • At 24 months old, boys and girls are aware of gender appropriate and -inappropriate behavior |
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True of False Adults are more likely to offer girl babies a doll and offer a boy baby a hammer or football even when sex of baby is disguised.
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True |
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True of False – Fathers are more likely to encourage rough-and-tumble-play with their sons. |
True |
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True of False – Parents talk more to daughters than to sons. |
True |
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True of False Parents smile more at daughters and are more emotionally expressive with them. |
True |
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True of False Parents tend to use gender specific colors. • Girls in pink, boys in blue |
True |
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True of False – Fathers show negative reactions when son plays with girls’ toys. |
True |
