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35 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What is problem-solving?
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An effort to overcome obstacles obstructing the path to a solution.
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Problem-solving cycle
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1. Problem identification
2. Definition of problem 3. Constructing a strategy for problem solving 4. Organizing info about a problem 5. Allocation of resources 6. Monitoring problem solving 7. Evaluating problem solving |
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Divergent thinking
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Generate a diverse assortment of possible alternative solution to a problem.
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Convergent thinking
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Narrow down the multiple possibilities to converge on a single best answer.
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Types of problems
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Well structure and ill structured
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Well structured
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Clear paths to solutions. "How do you find the area of a circle"
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Ill structured
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Lack clear path to solution. "How do you tie two suspended strings when neither string is long enough to allow you to reach the other while holding the either of the strings."
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Problem space
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The universe of all possible actions that can be applied to solving a problem, given any constraints that apply to the solution.
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Algorithms
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Sequences of operations that may be repeated over and over that guarantees the solution to a problem.
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Hueristics
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Informal, intuitive, speculative strategies that sometimes lead to an effective solution and sometime do not.
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Means ends analysis
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The problem solver analyzes the problem by viewing the end and then tries to decrease the distance between the current position in the problem space and the end goal in that space.
"Try to minimize distance between home and destination." |
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Working forward
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The problem solver starts at the beginning and tries to solve the problem from the start to finish.
"Find direction leading from home to the destination" |
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Working backward
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The problem solver starts at the end and tries to work backward from there. "Find directions that reach the destination and trace backward to see which one originates at home."
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Generate and test
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The problem solver simply generates alternative courses of action, not systematically, and then notices in turn whether each course of action will work. "Find various alternative routes leading from home, then see which route might be used to end at destination.
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Isomorphic
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Formal structure is the same and only their content differs.
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Insight
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Distinctive and sometimes sudden understanding of a problem or strategy that aids in solving the problem.
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Productive thinking
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Insights that go beyond the bounds of existing associations -- Max Wertheimer.
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Mental set
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A frame of mind involving an existing model for representing a problem, a problem context, or a procedure for problem solving -- Entrenchment. "Focus on moving towards the string instead of swinging strings."
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Functional fixedness
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The inability to realize that something known to have a particular use may also be used for performing other functions. "Use coat hand to get into car."
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Stereotypes
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Beliefs that members of a social group tend more or less uniformly to have a particular types of characteristics.
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Incubation
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Putting the problem aside for a while without consciously thinking about it -- minimizes negative transfer.
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Transfer
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Any carryover of knowledge or skill from one problem situation to another.
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Negative transfer
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Occurs when solving a problems makes it harder to solve a later one. "When you get a new tool, you use it similar to one you're already familiar with."
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Positive transfer
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Occurs when the solution of an earlier problem makes it easier to solve a new problem. "Transfer early math skills like addition to algebra.
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Transparency
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People see analogies where they do not exist because of similarity of content.
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Brain structures
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The right hemisphere plays a role in insight.
Prefrontal cortex is essential for planning for complex problem solving. Right hippocampus is critical in forming an insightful solution. Spike of activity in the right anterior temporal area immediately before an insight is formed. |
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Expertise
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Superior skills or achievement reflecting a well developed and well organized knowledge base.
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Experts
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Spend more time setting up a problem and matching information to what they already know.
Experts use long-term memory to help them solve problems. This frees up working memory. Involve large, highly interconnected unit of knowledge. |
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Novice
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Use a visual representation to solve problems that have an obvious spatial component, such as a geometry problem.
Involve relatively small and disconnect units of knowledge. |
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Turing test
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Asks an observer to distinguish the performance of a computer from that of a human
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Creativity
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The process of producing something that is both original and worthwhile.
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Characteristics of Creativity
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Expertise and commitment
Personality traits (see p. 481) External factors – environment that supports exploration |
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Csikszentmihalyi’s Traits
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Energy but rest often
Smart and naïve Playful but disciplined Imagination and reality Introverted and extraverted Humble and proud Androgynous Traditional and rebellious Passionate and objective Pain and enjoyment |
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Gardner traits
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Moderately supportive early family lives
Early interest in chosen field Gained mastery in field Revolutionary breakthrough (some support) Dedicated themselves solely to work Neglected close relationships Second breakthrough |
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Sternberg’s Investment Theory of Creativity
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Multiple factors must come together for creativity to occur.
Individual takes a “buy low, sell high” approach to ideas. Takes ideas no one else is interested in Develops these ideas into something significant Moves on to other endeavors |
